Butter was probably first produced in Asia and eventually spread throughout Europe. It takes its name from a combination of the Greek words for "cow" and "cheese."
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CHEESE
Among the most popular of regional cheeses are Greek Feta which is often stored in brine; soft-mold-ripened cheeses similar to Camembert and Brie that are ripened by the action of bacteria; and hard cheeses such as the Cypriot Haloumi or the Greek and Turkish Kephalari. Among the most common ways of serving these cheeses is by cooking them on the grill or by frying them. Nothing is simpler than cooking such cheeses on the grill. All that has to be done is to place the cheese over charcoals or under a hot grill, turning it once, cooking just until the skin begins to blister and starts to melt. Frying is equally simple, and all one has to do is place the cheese in very hot oil or butter (rolling the pieces in flour first, if desired), and serve with lemon juice.
SERVING CHEESES:
Today, to many Turks, Greeks, Egyptians and Lebanese, the thought of concluding even the simplest of meals without one or two cheeses is abominable. Whether one or twenty cheeses are offered, and regardless of whether they are served on separate plates or a large cheese board, they will always be served with bread. Unlike the French and the Italians, however, butter is rarely offered with cheeses.
At home or in restaurants, it is considered traditional to offer the cheeses first to the host or hostess. After inspecting the cheeses (do not be shocked when really knowledgeable guests poke the cheeses with their fingers to check their ripeness), the host then plunges a knife into any uncut cheeses on the plate before passing them around to the other guests. This is done because some guests are too shy to start a previously uncut wheel of cheese. The red wine that was served with the dinner is always considered appropriate for drinking during the cheese course.
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GOATS' CHEESE:
When Mark Twain visited Athens, Istanbul and Jerusalem at the turn of the century he was surprised to learn that "nearly everyone, regardless of whether they live in the cities or the mountains, owns at least one goat." Twain need not have been surprised, for the milk and cheeses of goats have historically been highly valued in the Mediterranean region since the days of antiquity. All around the Mediterranean, the land is often mountainous and stony, pasture land is poor and the land is dry, thus providing ideal conditions for raising goats. Although not everyone has liked the somewhat gamy flavor of goat's meat cheeses made from the milk of goats have been especially popular.
In more modern times such cheeses have been particularly popular among Bedouins, nearly all of whom keep goats and with those farmers whose land is not often suitable for raising cows. In keeping with tradition, goats' milk cheeses are small in size, have a relatively high fat content and range from soft to medium-soft. Because goat's milk is vastly different than cow's milk, try not be deterred by the high fat content (up to 45%) of these cheeses. Goat's milk cheeses are easily digestible and contain high levels of the type of cholesterol that nutritionists claim is good for us. They are also rich with proteins, mineral salts and Vitamins A, B1, B2 and C.
If your guests ask, as many will, whether they should cut away and discard the rind of these cheeses, let them know that even though this is their privilege, it is unnecessary, for the rind is no less full of flavor than the cheeses themselves.
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FETA:
Greek feta is a flaky, semi-soft, ripened cheese which is often stored in brine. It has a distinctively delicate and salty-sweet flavor. It is used in sandwiches, snacks, appetizers and meat pies, but it is most recognizable crumbled over a "Greek Salad."
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HALOUMI:
This very hard cheese is the only truly original contribution of the Cypriots to the regional cuisine. It is often served fried in olive oil with sesame seeds sprinkled over the top.
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KASHKAVAL:
Kashkaval is a ripe, hard cheese made from sheep's milk. It is used for cooking, and when freshly grated makes a flavorful garnish.
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KEFALOTYRI:
Kefalotyri is a very hard Greek cheese used in many dishes in the region. It is a dry-salted cheese that has been left to age for several months. "Kefalotyri" literally means, "head cheese," because after being pressed into molds, the resulting shape is usually that of a head or skull. Although the cheese can be sliced, it is most often grated.
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PARMESAN:
Parmesan is a very hard Italian cheese sold in cylinders, wedges or grated. It is a ripened cheese that's color is white or yellow. It can be sprinkled over pasta and salads, or used in meat dishes, most notably, Greek Mussaka.
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RICOTTA:
Ricotta cheese is a sweet, creamy Italian whey cheese. It is an unripened cheese used in many appetizers, salads, desserts and meat dishes, most notably, Greek Mussaka.
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CREAM
Cream is the separated rich, fatty part of whole milk that rises to the top. The longer it stands (at the top), the sweeter it will be. Heavy cream, sometimes called double cream, contains a minimum of 35% milk fat. Light cream, also called single cream, contains 16-32% milk fat.
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EGG/EGGS
Eggs figure prominently in the diet of all of the people of the Eastern Mediterranean. Eaten in a variety of ways for breakfast, eggs also make many a fine luncheon dish. Without eggs, most sauces (including the extremely popular avgolemono sauce of Greece) would be impossible to make and desserts such as pies, cakes, puddings, sauces and soufflΘs would be mere shadows of themselves. If that is not enough to demonstrate their importance to dining, eggs are also used in salads, sandwiches, stuffing, pancakes and breads.
Unfortunately, however, the egg has come upon hard times. With the growing awareness that too much cholesterol is a bad thing, the egg has been singled out as a destroyer of health and well-being. All of which is not entirely fair. Dietetically, fresh eggs are an almost complete food. They contain proteins, fats, Vitamins A, B, D and E (only Vitamin C is absent), an appreciable amount of iron and a number of valuable mineral salts. From the medical point of view, it is probably true that weekly consumption should be limited to two or three eggs. From the gastronomic point of view, let it suffice to say that whatever eggs we eat should be prepared with love.
Preparing Eggs:
1. Because eggs deteriorate in flavor easily, the fresher an egg the better it will taste. Cold storage eggs are fine for cakes and puddings but for boiled, poached, scrambled or fried eggs, you should use the freshest eggs you can buy. To test an egg for freshness, dissolve 2 tbs of salt in a liter of cold water. A fresh egg immersed in this solution will sink at once. A three day old egg will float in the middle. A four day old egg will float to the top. A truly old egg will not sink at all but will float with only half its volume submerged.
2. Never cook eggs in aluminum pans (glass or enamel is best), and never stir eggs with an aluminum utensil, that is unless you are fond of eggs that will take on a peculiar gray-green tint (wooden spoons are ideal for stirring).
3. With the exception of French omelets, high heat ruins eggs. Do not overcook eggs because they become tough and flavorless.
4. To avoid curdling, do not boil sauces after egg has been added to them.
5. It is best to have eggs at room temperature before cooking them. If they have just come from the refrigerator, run warm water over them for a minute or two.
6. To hard-boil eggs: place the eggs in a saucepan and cover with cold water by at least 1 inch. Place the saucepan over high heat until the water boils. Remove the saucepan from the heat, cover tightly, and let sit for 15 minutes. After 15 minutes, pour off the hot water and run the eggs under cold water to stop the cooking process.
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MILK
Milk is usually extracted from cows, sheep, or goats. There are many kinds of milk available containing various amounts of milk fat. The most common milk, whole cow's milk, is pasteurized, homogenized, and vitamin fortified.
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SOUR CREAM
Sour cream, like yogurt, is produced by injecting certain bacteria into milk or cream, causing fermentation. It does not, as some think, get it's sour flavor from having spoiled, but rather from the bacteria that has been added. Sour cream adds a wonderful flavor and creaminess to meat and game dishes, soups and sauces.
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WHIPPING CREAM
Whipped Cream is probably the most recognizable garnish for cakes, cookies and other desserts. It is attained from beating heavy or whipping cream at medium speed until it doubles in size. For sweetened whipped cream add 1-2 tablespoons of sugar and 1 teaspoon of vanilla extract for every cup of heavy or whipping cream used. For chocolate whipped cream add 2 tablespoons of instant cocoa mix for every cup of heavy or whipping cream used. When making whipped cream from scratch, do not over beat or you will end up with butter.
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YOGURT
There is no question that the most popular dairy product of the entire Eastern Mediterranean is yogurt. Thick and sour or at a near liquid consistency and almost sweet, yogurt is consumed at breakfast, lunch and dinner, as snacks and even in hospitals where it is firmly believed that it will restore energy to people who are, for one reason or another, feeling under the weather.
Perhaps most important, most people realize that the greatest charm of good yogurt is that it is delicious. Whether it has been made from cows' milk or that of goats' or sheep, most of the people of the region also know that the best yogurts are thick enough to cut with a spoon and have a distinctive and pleasant flavor that lingers comfortably for several minutes and then leaves the mouth with a clean, clear feeling. In addition to having the color of cream, truly good yogurt should also be thick and smooth, with no trace of lumpiness.
Some prefer to eat their yogurt plain and others prefer it with a small amount of sugar mixed into it. The truly brave of culinary heart enjoy their yogurt "peasant style," eaten together with whole cloves of raw garlic. Yogurt can also be exquisite when used together with raw or cooked salads or soups.
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CALAMARI
Calamari, also known as squid, are mollusks that are closely related to the octopus. Their origin is unknown, but fossil records have recorded their presence from as long as 500 million years ago. The squid is a hunting predator capable of reaching extremely fast swimming speeds, and are found in various sizes ranging from 2 inches to 15 meters. Many varieties have an ink sack which releases a cloud of melanin, the same brown, almost black substances that enables humans to tan. The cloud acts as a decoy, giving the calamari a chance to escape from danger.
Calamari can be bought large or small, fresh or frozen. The small squid from the Mediterranean basin, which are the best for stuffing, are generally frozen. All varieties and sizes of calamari can be stewed at length over a low heat, boiled very quickly, deep-fried in fat or sautΘed.
How to clean:
Firmly grasp the body and head with one hand then pull off the tentacles with the other hand. Using a pair of scissors or a very sharp knife, cut the tentacles off directly above the eyes then squeeze out the small bony beak in the center of the tentacles. Next, while holding the body under running water, peel of the skin. Remove the transparent backbone from inside the sac. Thoroughly rinse the sac and tentacles under running water making sure any bits left inside the sac have been removed. Leave in a colander to drain. Dry the calamari with paper towels before cooking.
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SMOKED COD'S ROE:
The Greek national dish, taramasalata would not be complete without smoked cod's roe. After being washed, the cod's roes are dry-salted for approximately 8 hours, then rinsed and dipped in boiling water. The boiling water causes them to swell. The boiled roes are then smoked. From there they can be grilled, broiled or fried.
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FISH STOCK:
Fish stock is made from cooking aromatic vegetables such as onions, leeks, carrots and celery, along with fresh herbs and fish bones in water, or water and wine, for about 30 minutes.
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GROUPER:
Grouper, a saltwater fish, is a very common Mediterranean fish. Although found along the entire eastern Mediterranean coast, it is most common along the Egyptian coastline. All over the region, grouper is broiled, grilled and baked as part of mezes and main courses.
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HERRING:
Herring, an oily saltwater fish found in the Atlantic and Pacific, is valued for its flesh and roes. Although they can be stuffed and baked, fried or broiled, they are used mainly for canning, smoking and pickling.
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SALTWATER FISH:
Because nearly all of the countries of the region have a coastline on the Mediterranean sea, salt water fish are particularly well known in the region. Among the most popular of these are the red mullet (known as barbounia to Turks and Sultan Ibriham to Arabs); gray mullet (also called arous or burri - the French equivalent of the dourade); sea bass (locus); and sole (smak Moussa, named in Arabic after Moses. Because of its thinness it is said to have been sliced in half when Moses parted the Red Sea). Other well known salt water fish are the turbot, cod, sardines, tuna, John Dory, gurnard and swordfish.
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FRESH WATER FISH:
Even though the fish from the Nile River are not considered fit to eat because they too often have the strong taste and smell of the Nile mud, fresh water fish are also popular. From the lakes and ponds of nearly every country in the region comes the extremely popular carp. For thousands of years trout have come from the rivers and streams of Turkey and Greece, and in recent years, with the advent of fish farming, trout and bass have also become popular in Israel, Egypt, Jordan and Lebanon.
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SALTED FISH:
Even though fish originally underwent the process of salting and drying to preserve them so that they could be stored or taken on long journeys, dried salted fish are still adored. Even though most fish are saltedcommercially, in parts of Turkey and Egypt many still buy fresh fish, wash and clean it, split it open, salt heavily inside and out and then dry it either in the sun or by burying it in hot sand or mud.
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PICKLED LAKERDA:
Lakerda is a large, oily fish found in the Mediterranean Sea, mostly around the coast of Turkey. It is either pickled or smoked.
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MUSSEL/MUSSELS
Mussels are mollusks that are sold fresh in their shells. They should only be purchased from reputable vendors or gathered fresh because if eaten out of season, they can be toxic.
How to choose:
They must still be alive when cooked and their shells should be tightly closed and uncracked.
How to store:
Store fresh mussels for no more than one day in the refrigerator. Make sure they are loosely wrapped.
How to prepare:
Rinse mussels to remove any grit or sand. Scrub them clean and then trim the beards off.
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OCTOPUS
Octopus are mollusks that are closely related to the calamari, and similarly release malanin as a decoy from their sack. Their origin is unknown, but fossil records have recorded their presence from as long as 500 million years ago. The octopus is a hunting predator capable of reaching extremely fast swimming speeds, and are found in various sizes ranging from 2 inches to 15 meters. Many varieties have an ink sack which releases a cloud of melanin, the same brown, almost black substances that enables humans to tan. The cloud acts as a decoy, giving the octopus a chance to escape.
Octopus can be found in most fish mongers' shops and a lot of grocery stores. They are most often frozen, or had been frozen, but fortunately, octopus is one of the few sea creatures that retains its flavor when frozen. In many of the sea ports and villages of the Mediterranean, you can see fishermen and elderly women banging an octopus on a rock or on the dock trying to tenderize and loosen the flesh of the octopus. Octopus bought from a fish monger or grocery store is usually ready for cooking. When cooking octopus, remember to cook it slow and lengthy otherwise the flesh will harden. The most popular way in the region to eat octopus is in bite sized pieces soaked in garlic and olive oil.
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PICKLED MACKERAL
Mackeral is small and less expensive than lakerda, but similar in quality.
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RED MULLET
Because nearly all of the countries of the region have a coastline on the Mediterranean sea, salt water fish are particularly well known in the region. Among the most popular of these are the red mullet (known as barbounia to Turks and Sultan Ibriham by Arabs).
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RED SNAPPER:
Red snapper, a white, creamy fleshed, saltwater fish, is found in the Gulf of Mexico. Small red snapper are usually stuffed and baked whole while larger ones, weighing up to 30 lb/13 1/2 kg, are used as fillets or steaks. They can be broiled, grilled, fried or baked, and make a wonderful addition to fish soups calling for white fish fillets.
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SARDINES
Sardines are a salt water fish belonging to the herring family. They are extremely popular in the region eaten fried or grilled. Although fresh sardines are not easily attainable in most places outside of the region, they can almost always be found canned in a variety of oils and sauces.
Although canned sardines, as a result of the canning process softening the bones, can be eaten whole, always have some bread on hand when eating fresh sardines to help get the little bones that get stuck in your throat all the way down. Water doesn't work, but bread does the trick every time!
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SHRIMP/SHRIMPS
Shrimp are shellfish that come in a variety of sizes and colors that range from pale gray to red. They are available year round and can be eaten cooked or uncooked.
How to choose:
Shrimp can be purchased frozen or canned. They can be purchased fresh as well and are available deveined, shelled, or intact. Select shrimp with a fresh smell and firm meat. Pass up those which are soft.
How to store:
Store fresh shrimp in the refrigerator for no more than a few days. Keep loosely wrapped.
How to prepare:
Using kitchen shears, remove the shell and lift the shrimp out. Devein the shrimp, if necessary, by making a shallow cut through the spine and remove the vein that runs along the curve. This vein is harmless and deveining is done for aesthetic reasons.
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STRIPED BASS:
Striped bass, a firm, white, saltwater fish, is very common to the Mediterranean and is also found in Euprope off the southern Atlantic and in the United States off the East coast. All over the region, striped bass is stuffed with herbs and broiled, grilled or baked as part of mezes and main courses. Striped bass, along with grouper, is in the sea bass family.
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WHITE FISH FILLET:
White bream, bass, daurabe and turbot can all be used in recipes calling for white fish fillet.
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APPLE/APPLES
Ever since that long ago day when Adam and Eve sampled the first apple from the first apple tree, people have tried to attach great moral value to eating apples. Catholics associate the apple with original sin; Jews with the acquisition of knowledge and Moslems with obedience. From the culinary point of view, the apple has neither moral nor social ramification. It is simply a delightful fruit, one appropriate for eating plain or for use in preparing many cakes, jams, stuffing or baked desserts.
As in the Americas and Europe, apples are now available year-round throughout the region. Eaten plain, halved and sprinkled over with lemon juice and sugar, or served uncooked in a sweet syrup, apples are also popular in cooked dishes, especially to add a touch of sourness to an otherwise sweet dish. Apples can also be stuffed with meat, black pepper, cinnamon and onion; served as part of chicken tagines; grated and sprinkled over salads; used as a sauce ingredient; or stewed and made into a compote.
Apples were one of the first cultivated fruits. Romans brought the apple to Britain after which its popularity quickly spread throughout Europe. Some of the best apples for cooking are pippin and McIntosh. Eating apples (which can be used for cooking as well) include red delicious, granny smith, cox's orange pippin, and Starking.
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APRICOT/APRICOTS
Herod the Great was a man who enjoyed eating well and, two thousand years ago, during the time he served as the Roman governor of Jerusalem and King of Judea and Samaria, he was famous for the quality of the feasts he served his guests. Even then there was no shortage of fish, lamb, vegetables and fruits in the Holy Land. If Herod had any culinary complaint at all, it was that he was a man with a passion for apricots and there was not an apricot tree within a thousand kilometers of Jerusalem.
Herod so dearly loved these fruits that he went to enormous expense to ensure that they would be on hand all year round. In the spring he imported them from Italy, in the summer from Armenia and in the winter from Algeria. In the autumn, when there were no fresh apricots anywhere in the world, he made do with jams and preserves. Over a twenty year period his various cooks devised more than two hundred apricot-based recipes.
Over the years, many local beliefs have developed about these delicious fruits. Bedouin women say that tea made from apricot pits increases fertility; men in Turkey and Greece consider apricot juice good for longevity; and many Israelis, Lebanese and Egyptians take the gift of apricots to be a sign of true friendship. In parts of Turkey and Syria, many consider it a sign of good luck when announcing an engagement, for the man to give his future parents-in-law a basket of fresh apricots or, if they are out of season, a large jar of apricot preserves.
Apricots are small firm fruits that range from yellow-orange to red in color. They have a sweet flesh and a delicate taste and are available dried, whole, or canned. They are native to China, though they have slowly spread west. The best apricots in the world are considered to be those grown in Kashmir.
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ARTICHOKE/ARTICHOKES
Early Greeks and Romans cultivated artichokes, which were originally imported from North Africa. Artichokes were always considered to be stately vegetables. They were a particular favorite of King Henry VIII, and Catherine de Medici complained of stomach ailments due to her immoderation in eating them. Globe, or common, artichokes are the leafy buds of a thistle-like perennial plant. Artichokes contain cynarine which causes food eaten afterwards to taste sweet. Whole artichokes, often stuffed, find their way into Greek and Turkish soups, and are an essential ingredient in many Jordanian and Syrian stews.
How to prepare for cooking:
For cooking whole: Holding the stem end, rinse the head under running water to clean. Remove the stem and any small outer leaves. Cut about an inch off the top of the artichoke bulb and rub the cut ends (stem and top) with a lemon half to stop discoloration. Cut off any sharp tips from the leaves and rinse again under cold water. The artichoke is now ready to cook.
For hearts or bottoms:
Larger artichokes are easier to work with. Place 2 tbs. of lemon juice in a bowl of water and set aside. Remove the stems. Place the artichokes in the lemon water to stop discoloration. Holding an artichoke upside-down, snap off the lower leaves one by one until the leaves begin to turn inward. Slice off the remaining cone, leaving about an inch and a half. Cut away the leaves at the base.
Turn the artichoke on its side and cut away all the green areas until you have a smooth flat disk. As you remove each heart, drop it in the lemon water. They are now ready to cook. The chokes can be removed after cooking.
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BEET/BEETS
The Greeks were early cultivators of the beet. Beets were later introduced to the Romans, who referred to them as "Roman beets" well into the Middle Ages. They were eventually grown for sugar production. Sugar beet is still a common source for sugar, second only to sugarcane.
How to prepare for cooking:
Wash delicately so as not to split the skin. Do not peel beets or remove the root ends or stems until you are ready to use them -- they will bleed.
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BELL PEPPER/BELL PEPPERS
Bell peppers, or sweet peppers, are either green, red (meaning fully matured), orange, or yellow. Although they are called peppers, neither the sweet nor the hot varieties are related to the common pepper. Christopher Columbus mistakenly identified hot peppers, which natives referred to as chillies, as the peppercorns native to Asia. They are members of the nightshade family.
How to prepare:
To seed and derib: halve from base to stem and remove stem membrane and seeds.
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JUNIPER BERRIES
Juniper berries come from a small evergreen tree native to Europe, the Arctic and North Africa. The berries are picked and dried and should be crushed with the back of a spoon and used with care because they have such a strong flavor. In addition to providing the flavor of gin, the whole berries are good with strong rich foods such as game and, in sauerkraut based dishes. Crushed juniper berries can be used in pat(s, with game birds, and in stuffings for poultry.
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BERRIES
Blackberries, dewberries, raspberries, youngberries, cranberries, blueberries, boysenberries, gooseberries, strawberries and loganberries all fall under the category of "berries." Generally speaking they are available during the summer months. Only strawberries are available all year round. Look for fresh, plump, beautifully colored berries that are not crushed or molded. Also avoid any berries that have leaked juice through the carton. Delicious straight out of the hand, berries also make a wonderful addition to many sauces, coffee cakes, breads, desserts and stews. They are also excellent for stuffing meats and poultry such as lamb or chicken. Refrigerate all berries and use within 1-2 days of purchasing.
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CAPER/CAPERS
Capers are the buds from the unopened flowers of the caper bush (capparis spinosa) which are pickled and preserved in vinegar and salt. They are widely used in the Mediterranean, where they grow wild, for adding zest to sauces, fish, and meat. The best capers come from France and are known as Capucine or Nonpareille. Pickled nasturtium seeds can substitute for capers, if needed.
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CARROT/CARROTS
Carrots were probably first cultivated in the Mediterranean and were developed from wild carrots. There are records of yellow carrots grown in Turkey in the tenth century and both yellow and purple varieties in Europe up till the 17th century when orange carrots first appeared in Holland. By the mid-18th century, only orange varieties of carrots were cultivated although white varieties of wild carrot still exist.
How to prepare:
Baby carrots need only be rinsed, not peeled. Young carrots need only a scrub with a vegetable brush. Older carrots should be peeled, quartered, and cored before being used (they can be bitter). If you are preparing soup stock, cores may remain.
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CAULIFLOWER/CAULIFLOWERS
It is believed that cauliflower was first cultivated in the eastern Mediterranean, before coming to Italy in the late 15th century. They did not gain favor until the end of the 18th century. Mark Twain referred to it as "nothing but a cabbage with a college education." Cauliflower is a type of flowering cabbage that grows all year-round. The most common cauliflower is white, but purple and green varieties are cultivated as well.
How to prepare:
Remove all green leaves except the very small ones. Cut off the stem and rinse. If using whole, remove the core with a sharp knife. Otherwise, separate into florets, trimming stems when necessary.
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CELERY
Celery was originally cultivated in Italy from a wild, stronger-tasting plant. It was grown in marshes near the sea. This wild type of celery was probably first used for medicinal purposes. The milder-tasting stalk celery first appeared in Italy in the 16th century. Celery is a biennial plant.
How to prepare:
Wash the inner stalks. Leaves may be used in preparing vegetable stock.
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DRIED FRUITS
As long ago as three thousand years ago, many Egyptian and Turkish sailors would sign on for sea voyages that would keep them at open sea for six months or longer before they spied land. Although pirates and storms were both considered dangerous, the greatest danger that the sailors faced was that the fresh fruits and meats that had been placed on board at the beginning of their voyage would rot and become inedible before they would come to a place where they could find or buy fresh produce. For many years the greatest cause of death for sailors was starvation.
It did not take long before the ancient Egyptians and Turks devised a way to remove the moisture from most fruits. What surprised most sailors was that even though the fruits had been dried, they retained much of their taste and all of their nutritional value. Best of all, at least to the sailors, these dried fruits could remain fresh for a year or longer.
Dried fruits have never lost popularity in the region. In fact, so tasty were they considered that by 1,000 years ago, dried apricots, apples, grapes and other fruits were considered an indispensable part of the local diet, adored as much for their sweet concentrated flavor as for the vitamins with which they are packed. Chewy and full of concentrated sugar, they are adored by young and old alike. Interestingly, even more than fresh fruits, dried pears, apples, raisins, prunes and apricots are specially good for the digestive system. As a humorous note, even today many Greek and Turkish men continue to believe that eating dried fruits will make them more sexually potent.
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CUCUMBER/CUCUMBERS
Even though they have always been a part of the human diet, cucumbers remain vastly misunderstood. Most people, for example, consider the cucumber to be a vegetable; even more are convinced that all cucumbers are green; and a great many think cucumbers are good to eat because they are full of vitamins and minerals. None of these beliefs are true.
Native to northwest India, where they have almost always grown wild (archaeologists in Hindustan have found preserved cucumbers that, according to carbon dating, are 30,000 years old) cucumbers are not vegetables but in fact are the fruits that are harvested from the vines of the plant known in Latin as "cucumus sativus," which is a member of the gourd family. Once this is known it is not at all shocking to realize that cucumbers are more closely related to pumpkins and squash than to peas or carrots. What does surprise, however, is that the cucumber vine is also a remarkably close genetic cousin to the hemp plant. Known in Latin as "canibus sativa," this is the plant from which marijuana is made. For better or worse, however, the cucumber has none of the psychedelic qualities of its cousin. Until recently, cucumbers were usually served cooked.
That belief that all cucumbers are green is easy enough to dispel once one realizes that although green cucumbers grow all over the world there are white cucumbers grown in Egypt and Syria as well as in parts of South America and Europe; red cucumbers are found in Egypt as well as in parts of Africa and Asia; and green, yellow and white striped cucumbers are especially popular in the countries of Scandinavia.
As to their vitamins and other nutrients, one should be aware that although cucumbers contain vitamins A, B and C and relatively high amounts of potassium, iron, magnesium, these are little help to human beings. The simple truth is that because cucumbers are particularly difficult to digest, practically none of their vitamins and minerals are absorbed by the body.
Whatever its biological roots and digestive difficulties, the cucumber rightly maintains a high level of welcome throughout the Eastern Mediterranean. Refreshing, cooling, with just the right amount of crispness, they are ideally suited to the weather of the region. What is not widely known is that one of the earliest liqueurs was made, probably about 4,500 years ago in Egypt by combining the juice of cucumbers with sugar cane, honey and molasses. Although one can only speculate, there is a very good chance that the liqueur tasted absolutely vile.
Although there are more than sixty known varieties of cucumbers, only three are cultivated in the Eastern Mediterranean and another two grow wild. The large, dark green cucumbers in the markets of both the Mediterranean and America are often coated with wax to make them more attractive to the eye. The wax is edible, but many feel that it is better to peel them, especially if eating the cucumbers uncooked. The longer, narrower cucumbers found, many of which are coated with an individual plastic wrapper (and not waxed) are grown in hothouses and have far fewer seeds than those grown in open fields. Some varieties of hothouse cumbers are actually seedless. The small, often curved cucumbers we find are of the "Kirby" variety and these are delicious either for eating or for making pickles.
How to prepare:
Even though cucumbers are probably best known for their role in a large variety of salads, they are also a valuable and tasty ingredient in many cooked dishes. Scrub well and peel if very waxy. The wax, which seals in moisture, is harmless. To seed, halve through the middle and use a melon baller or a thin sharp knife. Keep in mind that because the liquids in cucumbers tend to become especially bitter when cooked, many cooks have learned to salt their cucumbers. Sprinkle the cucumbers with salt, let them stand for 15 - 20 minutes and then rinse them under cold running water before using them in cooking.
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CURRANTS
Currants, closely related to blueberries and cranberries, are found wild in parts of North America and Europe. Although not know for sure, they are believed to be cultivated in northern Europe around 1600 and brought to North America during colonial times. The French liqueur crΦme de cassis is made from black currants. They are very high in vitamin C.
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DATE/DATES
Known to the Chaldeans and Egyptians in antiquity, dates, coming from the Greek word meaning "finger," have become one of the best known foods of the Mediterranean basin. Date bearing palm trees, which sometimes attain heights of up to 60 feet, exist in distinctly male and female forms, and these have grown wild for millions of years in the dessert areas bounded by the Nile and the Euphrates. There are over 360 varieties of date, although many of them are not for eating. Perhaps because the trees are often found in oases, the fruit has long been associated with hospitality.
Jewish folklore has always given a friendly nod to the date palm. Deborah, the judge, always held court under the shade of one of these trees and in the Song of Songs, the beloved one is said to have the stateliness of a date palm. Several rabbis have claimed the ability to "understand the language of these graceful trees." Nor do Moslems and Christians overlook the importance of the date. They were one of Mohammed's favorite fruits and, because they are associated with resurrection, dates also have an important place in Christian ritual, especially on Palm and Easter Sundays. While fresh dates are always best for eating and cooking, many find that dried dates (available all year) are equally good for cooking.
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EGGPLANT/EGGPLANTS
There is no food item considered more indispensable to the regional diet than the eggplant. Sometimes referred to as "poor man's meat" and sometimes as "poor man's caviar," eggplant is one of the most reliable, and versatile foods of the region. So well received are dishes based on eggplant, that they are served as part of breakfast in exclusive hotels as well as in Bedouin tents and, in one form or another they are offered with both lunch and dinner at the simplest and the most prestigious restaurants in Athens, Tel Aviv, Istanbul and Alexandria. One well known humorist once wrote about the people of the region that "if they did not eat eggplant at least once a day, most of them would feel that things had gone terribly wrong in their world."
So popular are dishes based on these fruits that a series of stories about them has entered the collective knowledge of the people. Everyone in the region knows the story of the Imam, or Moslem priest, who was so overcome with emotion when he first tasted fried eggplant (IMAM BAYALDI) that he fainted from an excess of joy; and nearly every child can tell you from which Turkish palace or Bedouin tent many of these dishes originated.
Despite its enormous popularity, however, the eggplant, which is known as "aborigine" to the English and French and as "chatzil" in both Hebrew and Arabic, is a severely misunderstood food item. By whatever name it is known, for example, it is not as most people assume, a vegetable. Technically at any rate, the eggplant is an herb and, while its roots and leaves have value (as seasonings in Far Eastern cuisine and as herbal tea in parts of Africa), it is the round, firm fruit of the plant which is considered ultimately edible.
In addition to its delicate flavor, the eggplant has always been admired because it is considered "user-friendly." In fact, there is probably no food so easily prepared and so difficult to rob of its flavor. Eggplants can be boiled, broiled, fried, grilled, roasted or baked. They can be eaten with or without their skin and can be served in nearly any state of warmth or coldness. It can be sliced, diced, chopped, pureed, chunked or crumbled. Best of all, especially for those who are not experts in the kitchen, it can be overcooked to extremes and still maintain a delicate flavor. In a sense, it is nearly impossible to destroy an eggplant which, when anywhere even nearly properly prepared, can serve as and in a multiple of salads or condiments, as main courses or as side dishes to accompany a meal.
How to prepare:
To purge the eggplant of its bitter juices, cut into slices or cubes (as recipe requires), put on a towel, and generously sprinkle with salt. Use 1 tablespoon of salt per 2 lb/900 g. Use a weight to squeeze the moisture out. Let sit for at least an hour. Drain, rinse and dry with paper towels or, for cubes, gently squeeze dry in a kitchen towel. Japanese eggplants need not be purged.
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FIG/FIGS
Besides being the sweetest of all fruits, the fig calls forth dreams of Mediterranean nights, romance and even immortality. The ancient Greeks believed the fig tree to be invested with divinity. The Romans, believing that Romulus and Remus, the founders of their city, were born under the sheltering limbs of a fig tree, render the tree great homage, and even today the English celebrate Palm Sunday by eating fig pudding, probably in recollection of the entry of Jesus into Jerusalem and his encounter with a barren fig tree.
Cultivated in the Eastern Mediterranean since antiquity, figs have been found in the tombs of the pharaohs, and there are many mentions of this delicate fruit in the Bible, New Testament and Koran. In the Garden of Eden, for example it was with the leaves of the fig tree that Adam and Eve covered themselves after they had sinned. More recently, archaeologists excavating the ruins of the cities in the Judean hills uncovered dried figs dating from the Neolithic Age, nearly seven thousand years ago.
During those early days there were frequently more figs than the people could eat, so they were also pressed into a honey-like mixture. This process continues today, especially in Arab villages where this delicious liquid, called "devalah," has many of the qualities of fine honey. Some biblical scholars, realizing that honey itself was rare, claim that devalah was responsible for the passage that referred to Israel as a "land flowing with milk and honey."
It is no mere coincidence that fig trees have always been part of the dry, rocky and hilly countryside of the region. Because the trees are capable of thriving in even the poorest soil, and have the ability to grow on the steepest hillsides they are naturally suited to the land. Even more important, the region is lucky in that it abounds with fig wasps, the females of which are responsible for the pollination of the fig trees. Thousands of years before men and women had discovered how to artificially pollinate fruit trees, the job was being done for them by these wasps.
The fig tree has had two other important meanings throughout history. First, because the tree often attains heights of five to ten meters, its thick leaves provide shade from the scorching heat of the Mediterranean summer. Even more important, at least since the Biblical times, people have dreamed of the day when they, their neighbors and the world "...shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks; and nation shall not lift up sword against nation; neither shall they learn war any more. But they shall sit, every man under his vine and his fig tree; And none shall make them afraid."
Whether eaten plain (unlike most other fruits, figs can be eaten whole - skin, pulp and seeds), made into a delicious beverage or used in a variety of recipes, these pear-shaped, sugary fruits are no less adored today than they were in ancient times.
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FRENCH BEAN/FRENCH BEANS
Beans are an ancient crop, first cultivated in Central and South America. They were brought to Europe and Asia during the Spanish conquest. French beans were introduced in the early 16th century but were not popularly grown until the 18th century. Cultivated beans vary considerably in color, size, and texture. With some only the pods are eaten, while other varieties are eaten whole. French beans are annuals that require warm temperatures in order to grow.
How to prepare for cooking:
Beans may be kept whole if thoroughly washed.
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FRUITS
Socrates, surely one of the wisest of the ancient Greek philosophers, observed that "a man who loves not the fruits of the season knows not how to love life itself." The fruits of the Eastern Mediterranean offer a remarkable abundance of pleasure, and among the most popular are DATES, FIGS, GRAPES, APPLES, CITRUS FRUITS (including ORANGES, GRAPEFRUITS and LEMONS), WATERMELONS, APRICOTS and STRAWBERRIES. Despite their popularity, however there is no fruit more important to the diet of the entire Eastern Mediterranean than the OLIVE. Whether crushed and made into oil, eaten plain, dried, pickled or otherwise preserved, the diet of the Mediterranean would be a mere shadow of itself, without the charming fruit of the olive tree.
As much as fresh fruits are popular, they are only in season for a limited number of months every year, so the region has also developed a deep devotion to DRIED FRUITS, used both in cooking and to be eaten on their own.
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GRAPES
Throughout history, grapes have been one of the favorite fruits of the entire Mediterranean Basin. During the reign of Pharaoh Tutankhamen, the vineyards at Luxor boasted such lavish production that grapes were said to be "more plentiful than the water of the Nile at its highest mark." Ever since that early time, the grape has served as a symbol of luxury, good taste and elegance.
Grapes did not lose their popularity after the demise of the pharaohs. A favorite of the matriarchs, patriarchs, Old and New Testament prophets and kings of Israel, there are over 300 references to the grape in the Old Testament. Mentioned frequently in the New Testament and the Koran they were also much appreciated by the disciples of Jesus and Mohammed.
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POMEGRANATES:
Few fruits have as many myths associated with them as Pomegranates. The ancient Greeks, for example, believed that the pomegranate was given to them by Zeus as a reward for their devotion to him, and many Arabs and Bedouins believed that the tree had power over evil spirits. It was a tree under which one could sleep in safety and security. Perhaps the most charming of all myths is that which states that in each pomegranate fruit, one seed has come down from paradise. Even today, many Christian and Jewish mystics believe that the pomegranate tree is The Tree of Life.
Mentioned in the Bible as one of the five fruit trees indigenous to the Holy Land, the pomegranate has served as a source of artistic inspiration for many centuries. The golden bells that ornamented holy temples, whether in Giza or Athens, were shaped like pomegranates and their design often appears on mosaic floors, carved in stone on friezes and on ancient coins. In early Christian art, the appearance of the pomegranate symbolized eternal life and a fine example of this is seen in Bethlehem on the floor of the cave of the Church of the Nativity.
Mythology aside, modern day residents of the Eastern Mediterranean still consider the bright red pomegranate one of the most luxurious, delicious and beautiful of fruits. In many cities of the area for example, street vendors with old fashioned juice squeezers still cut pomegranates in half and squeeze out their juice. Nothing makes a more refreshing warm-weather drink.
To remove the seeds from a whole pomegranate, simply cut the fruit in half and scoop out the seeds with a spoon, discarding the bitter white pith. Whether eaten plain, sprinkled on salads, or added to a vinaigrette dressing, they make marvelous treats. They also make excellent additions to humus or tahini. To try them in the Arabic fashion, sprinkle the seeds with rose-water, lemon juice and sugar. Chill the mixture well and then serve in a bowl that sits on crushed ice, giving each guest a demi-tasse spoon so that they may help themselves directly from the bowl.
Pomegranate seeds are also used to make Grenadine, a non-alcoholic sweet syrup used in various cocktails. A delightful homemade version of Grenadine, remarkably similar to one made in ancient Greece more than 2,000 years ago, can be made by juicing 6 pomegranates, boiling the juice for 5 - 6 minutes and, if desired, adding sugar to taste and simmering for 3 - 4 minutes longer. The resulting syrup can be stored for up to 2 months if placed in sterile glass jars and refrigerated.
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LEEK/LEEKS
Leeks have been enjoyed since the fifth millennium B.C. and were quite popular until the 17th century. They were one of the food rations that were given to slaves working on the pyramids in Egypt. They are a member of the onion family and have a subtle but unique flavor. They have sometimes been described as the "poor man's asparagus" even though they taste nothing like asparagus!
How to prepare for cooking:
Leeks have to be washed very well, as they tend to be gritty. If using sliced leeks, cut them first. Soak them for at least 10 minutes, and then rinse them thoroughly under running water. If using whole, cut off any yellow or wilted leaves or rough green areas of the stalk. Remove the roots. Clean thoroughly and dry with a paper towel before using.
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LEMON/LEMONS
The lemon is a citrus fruit grown throughout the Mediterranean. It probably originated in India, however its name is from the Arabic word for "citrus fruit." As it became more popular, its value was fully realized not only in the kitchen but also in preventing scurvy in the 18th century. Because of its strong acidic taste, it is usually used only in cooking or in making juices. A few drops of lemon juice will prevent some cut fruit -- such as apples and avocados -- from browning.
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LETTUCE
The ancient Egyptians first cultivated lettuce, which was also popular among the early Romans. Lettuce is depicted in some Egyptian tomb paintings but it is thought that it was first used for the oil in its seeds rather than as an edible plant. It was one of the first foods introduced to Britain by the Romans. There are several hundred varieties of lettuce, many of which are available all year round. Combining different lettuces makes for an attractive salad.
How to prepare:
All greens must be thoroughly washed (not soaked) and dried, either with a clean, soft kitchen towel or a salad spinner.
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MUSHROOM/MUSHROOMS
From numerous archaeological findings we know that mushrooms have been popular fare in the region of the Eastern Mediterranean for many millennia. During Biblical and pre-Biblical days, however, men and women had not learned to cultivate mushrooms and, because they appear in nature only during the winter, the people could eat these delightful fungi during the three or four rainy months of the year. As long as 8,000 years ago, one of the reasons the people who lived in the ancient city of Jericho prayed for rain was so that they could feast on the large variety of mushrooms that grew everywhere from the Judean Mountains to the northern part of the Negev Desert. Today, to the great joy of the people, nearly every country in the region has learned to cultivate a wide variety of mushrooms, many of which are now available all year round. Mushrooms are a type of fungus and, therefore, lack chlorophyll. There are many varieties, about 50 edible species in the U.S. alone.
How to prepare:
To cook, trim the base of the stems. If the gills are even partially exposed, break the stem off inside the cap to wash out any sand which may have become enlodged. Ideally, mushrooms should never be peeled because the most intense flavor is in their skin. In order to keep the skin intact, clean the mushrooms by brushing them with a damp paper towel just before using. If earth clings to the mushrooms and they must be washed drop them in cold water just before using and then rub them gently between the hands to dislodge any dirt. Drain the mushrooms in a colander and dry on a towel before using. Keep in mind that even though the stems of mushrooms are somewhat tougher than the caps, they can also be used, especially in making stock or stuffing.
Hunting Wild Mushrooms:
Despite the wide acceptance of cultivated mushrooms, wild mushrooms are especially valued by chefs. Every year, from the time the winter rains begin in December and until the end of February, thousands of people in the cities and countryside of Greece, Turkey, Israel and Lebanon travel to the low mountains surrounding their cities or villages. Once there, they devote many hours to selecting the finest wild mushrooms. As in many other places in the world, such devotees know that wild mushrooms are a special culinary treat. With their woody flavor and light garlicky aroma, there are good reasons why such mushrooms are much prized by chefs and gastronomes the world over.
While such expeditions may be a most rewarding activity, it is one that should be undertaken with a certain amount of caution, for in addition to the edible varieties there are also those mushrooms that may be harmful or even deadly. Apart from their botanical characteristics, there is no sure way to tell good from bad mushrooms. The belief that a poisonous mushroom will blacken a silver object or onion provides no guarantee of safety and even though it is possible to make certain fungi safe for consumption by boiling in salted water or vinegar this is to no avail for those that contain amanita toxin, the most deadly of all. Armed with the appropriate knowledge (or a guide who has that knowledge), hunting the wild mushroom can be a delightful and profitable pastime for the professional chef.
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OLIVES
Olives are a staple of Mediterranean cuisine. They were eaten in ancient Greece and then passed on throughout the region and then on to Western Europe.
There are basically three types of olives:
Green Olives - Green olives are cracked unripened olives that are pickled in a strong brine to remove their bitterness. Lemon juice is added to enhance their flavor.
Ripe Olives - These fully ripened olives come in a variety of colors from green to russet to dark purple. Kalamata olives are an example of this type.
Cured Black Olives - These olives are salt-cured and have a wrinkled appearance. They have a strong flavor and should be used in smaller amounts than ripened olives. Gaeta olives are an example of this type.
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ONION/ONIONS
Onions are ancient vegetables that were cultivated as far back as 3200 B.C. by the Egyptians. They were popular in the Middle Ages in Europe, at which time the modern varieties were first cultivated. The onion, a bulb, is a member of the lily family. There are many varieties of onion and because of its flavor and versatility, it is used in all cuisines. In one combination or another the members of the onion family - onions (red, white and yellow), spring onions, leeks and garlic are critical to the success of many Eastern Mediterranean dishes.
How to prepare:
Cut onions before using and do not prolong exposure to air; as exposure creates a harsh flavor.
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CANDIED ORANGE PEEL/CANDIED ORANGE PEELS
Candied orange peels make a delicious and beautiful garnish for all sorts of desserts and sweets, particularly cheesecake and ice cream. In some countries it is also used in meat dishes, such as the Egyptian Stuffed Breast of Lamb.
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ORANGE/ORANGES
Wherever one travels in Israel, Turkey, Greece, Cyprus and Lebanon, orange groves are so much a part of the landscape that many take it for granted that the orange has always been an integral part of the culinary lifestyle of the Eastern Mediterranean. So firmly associated with the region is this fruit that even the Biblical Jonah is associated with oranges, for, it is said that when he was thrown up from the belly of the whale that he was set ashore in Jaffa, there he found himself in an area pleasantly cooled by the shade of luxurious groves of dates and oranges.
It is true that oranges have grown in this region for over four thousand years but the fruits that Jonah and others of our forbears knew were bitter oranges, quite different than those so highly prized today. Unlike bitter oranges which grow on trees that sometimes reach twelve meters in height, sweet oranges grow on compact, elegant trees, with pleasantly scented blossoms. And, although bitter oranges have grown wild in the Eastern Mediterranean since pre-historical times, the trees that bear sweet oranges originated in China in the region known as Cochin China.
No one knows precisely when the sweet orange was introduced into the Eastern Mediterranean, but the first orange tree was brought to the Western World in the early 16th century, when Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama brought a root of one of these trees from China to Portugal. It is from that single tree, which is still preserved in the courtyard of the Lisbon home of the Count of Saint-Laurent that all of the oranges of Israel, Greece, Turkey, Cyprus and Lebanon have come. Orange, a French town, is thought to have given the fruit its name, as it was a hub for the orange trade.
Whatever their origin, sweet and bitter oranges of more than a dozen varieties currently now grow in the area, and most people cannot conceive of life without fresh oranges. In the autumn, when the trees blossom the sweet, clean scent of orange flowers can be felt throughout the land, and in the winter, when they are harvested and at their best, fresh orange juice is an inescapable, yet pleasurable, fact of life throughout the region. Bitter oranges remain popular and are used primarily for making jams, sorbets and marmalade while sweet oranges are eaten fresh, squeezed into juice and used in a large variety of cooked dishes. Oranges and other citrus fruits (grapefruits, pomellos, lemons and limes) in general have a well earned reputation for delicacy and clarity of taste. Whether eaten raw, used in making sorbets or jams or cooked in a variety of dishes, they add a marvelous touch to many a recipe that might be terribly banal were they lacking the charm of citrus.
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PEAR/PEARS
Pears were cultivated as far back as 2750 B.C. at which time records indicate ancient Sumerians using them. Romans introduced the fruit to Britain, where they became quite popular.
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POTATO/POTATOES
Potatoes were an important crop in ancient Peru. The Incas also grew potatoes. Potato remains have been found in areas that date from 4000 B.C. Potatoes were known in Europe by the 16th century. They quickly became a very popular crop worldwide, and, in the mid-19th century, it was reported that the two main meals of the average working man in England relied more on potatoes than the traditional bread. Potatoes are tubers from the night shade family. They are 75%-80% water.
How to prepare:
Thoroughly clean the potato and, if possible, cook with skin intact, to preserve nutrients. If peeling, do so just before using, to prevent discoloration.
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PRUNES
Prunes, simply put, are dried plums, originating in the Caucasus. In recent times, the prune has developed a bad name, most likely because of its association with being a more bearable laxative. Its bad reputation aside, prunes are delicious straight out of the hand and make a wonderful addition to many sauces, coffee cakes, breads, desserts and stews. They are also excellent for stuffing meats and poultry such as lamb or chicken. Store prunes at room temperature for up to 6 months in a tightly sealed container.
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QUINCE/QUINCES
Quince, a close relative of the apple and resembling a pale-colored pear, is a fruit used primarily in jams, jellies and pies. The fruit is incredibly hard, and thus needs long cooking to soften. The fragrance of the quince is unrivaled. Quince is grown primarily in the Mediterranean region. It is believed that the golden apple Aphrodite received from Paris as a prize for her beauty was actually a quince.
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RADISH
The ancient Egyptians cultivated radishes as far back as 2780 B.C., and by 500 B.C. radishes were available in China. A few hundred years later, they appeared in Japan. Black radishes were cultivated first, followed by white radishes, while round varieties appeared in the 18th century, along with the red-skinned types. Radishes can be either annuals or biennials; they are a root plant with many varieties. They are used in Asian cooking with great diversity. The varieties grown in Asia are larger and more leafy than those grown elsewhere. The Japanese call radishes "daikon," and the Chinese refer to them as "luo bo" or "bok." In Asian cooking radishes are grated, pickled, eaten raw (leaves and stems), fried, boiled, steamed, and added to sauces; they are highly prized vegetables.
The largest radish in the world is the Japanese sakurajima which can grow to 32 in/ 81 cm. Asian varieties are either white or various shades of red. In the West, the common radishes are white radishes, or "icicles." There are also black radishes, which are more mild; they are usually eaten raw (whole or grated) in salads.
How to prepare:
Clip any leaves and remove any dark patches at the base of the stem. Remove root tip. Wash and dry before using. Daikon must be trimmed and peeled before being used.
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RAISINS
Raisins are partly dried grapes. They get their name from the Latin for "bunch of grapes." There are both golden and brown varieties (their color depending on the type of grape used). The best raisins are said to come from Spain and are made from muscatel grapes.
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SCALLION/SCALLIONS
Scallions are also known as "green onions" or "spring onions" and they are, quite simply, immature onions that are harvested when young. Real scallions have a finer texture and milder flavor than globular, bottomed spring onions, but they are basically interchangeable.
How to prepare:
Usually, only the white and light green parts of scallions are used in cooking. For maximum flavor, add the scallions just before serving, as their tender flavor tends to dissipate with heat.
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SHALLOT/SHALLOTS
Shallots are the mild-flavored cousin of the onion/garlic group and a member of the lily family. They did not come into culinary use until the 18th century. They are now widely used, particularly in French cooking. Their green tops are marketed as scallions.
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SPINACH
The origin of spinach is not known but it was probably first cultivated by the Persians and from there spread to China. Spinach was known in Europe by the 11th century, when it was introduced there by Arabs, who considered it the prince of vegetables. It did not, however, gain wide acceptance in Europe until the 16th century.
Spinach is an annual that has a high iron content; its styptic taste comes from alum and iron. Spinach is widely used in cooking and was so well-liked by Catherine de Medici (a Florentine) that today any dish prepared with it is known as florentine.
How to prepare:
Sort out any wilted leaves and remove fibrous stalks. Wash carefully, as sand and dirt is often trapped in the leaves. Spinach shrinks in volume during cooking, so allow about 1 pound (450 g.) for 2 people. Spinach should be cooked quickly so that nutrients are retained; steaming is the best method.
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STRAWBERRY/STRAWBERRIES
Nearly everyone has a favorite method for serving strawberries. Russians like them with sugar and cream; Italians like them with red wine or orange juice poured over; Germans like them with lemon; and the French like them with champagne or liqueurs. Americans know that they make the best ice cream; Japanese use them to make a delicate liqueur; and in the Philippines they are used to make special holiday breads. The people of the Eastern Mediterranean consider themselves the wisest of all, for most eat strawberries plain, considering that there is no better way to enjoy their full, rich flavor.
Although cultivation of this delicate fruit began in the region only in the 13th century, many traditional beliefs have even developed about when to serve them. Even though they have never been thought to be aphrodisiacs, this is a fruit with strong sexual connotations for many. Greeks consider them an ideal aide during seduction scenes; Egyptians like to munch them after their seductions; and Turks, perhaps wisest of all, like to have them on hand during their more passionate moments.
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TOMATO/TOMATOES
Tomatoes were popular in ancient Mexico and were brought to Europe as a result of the Spanish conquest in the early 16th century. Europeans were quite skeptical about tomatoes and considered them poisonous for many years. Tomatoes are related to potatoes and are a member of the night shade family. Valued for their taste, tomatoes (which are actually fruits and not vegetables) are considered the flavoring par excellence for many dishes of the region. Stuffed, steamed, baked, grilled and fried they are eaten on their own, frequently seasoned with fresh herbs. In various forms tomatoes will also be found as parts of stews, in sauces and made into pickles.
They range from red to green to yellow in color and are available fresh, sun-dried (also known as "pumate"), and canned in a variety of forms.
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VINE LEAF/VINE LEAVES
Even though grapes and their fermented juice have earned the devoted attention of poets, artists and lovers, few songs have been sung and nary a play dedicated to the leaves of the grape vine. All of which is odd, for everywhere in the Mediterranean basin, the people have made an art-form of using this particular culinary treat. Vine leaves, or grape leaves, are native to the Mediterranean and are used as wrappers to contain rice and/or minced meat. Mature grape leaves are used to wrap small fish and birds and to make delicious hors d'oeuvres. The youngest and most tender of the vine leaves are used to make fritters or, when finely chopped, are added to green salads. In Lebanon and Jordan they can also be found in use as decorative garnishes with fresh fruits. They are used primarily in Greek, Turkish, and Middle Eastern cooking, the best-known dish being "dolmades."
How to prepare:
Fresh grape leaves are best for cooking. The leaves should be soaked in hot water for 5 - 6 minutes before using. If prepared in advance by a local market, they may, depending on personal taste, be used as is or soaked for about 1 hour in cold water. If only tinned leaves are available, these should be soaked for 5 - 6 hours in cold water. In all cases, after soaking the leaves should be rinsed under cold water and then very gently squeezed dry between towels before using.
How to choose:
Prepared vine leaves can be purchased in jars or fresh. If you pick them yourself, make sure the leaves have not been contaminated with sprays. Choose large, whole, fresh leaves with a dark green color.
How to store:
Once they are opened, store jars of grape leaves in the refrigerator. Fresh leaves should be wiped clean and placed in a plastic bag in the refrigerator -- they may be frozen, if desired. Use fresh leaves within a few days.
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WATERMELON/WATERMELONS
Although it is not widely known, the first wines of the Eastern Mediterranean were not made from grapes. They were made from the watermelons that grew in the shade of trees in Egypt.
So highly prized were these wines that they were stored in special earthen jars and these were placed on large wood pallets. At least from the time of Pharaoh Cheops, each jar was carefully labeled by vintage and the watermelon wines from certain fields were considered far superior to others. At the most popular level, peasants enjoyed watermelon wines at home; slaves were given two liters of wine to drink every day and there were even roadside stands at which thirsty travelers could stop and sip a glass or two of their favorite vintage. The best wines, of course went to the royal household, and many found themselves in the funerary urns of the Pharaohs.
When the Egyptians, and later the Israelites, finally learned that grapes made far better wine than watermelon, the watermelon lost none of its popularity. People began eating watermelons simply for the pleasure of the fruit and the even more subtle pleasures of pickled and spiced rind.
Watermelons should be firm and symmetrically shaped. The flesh should be firm and have a nice red color with black seeds. Ripen at room temperature then refrigerate.
Tips:
To check for ripeness, tap the watermelon. It should have a hollow sound. Another way is to squeeze the watermelon. If it makes a "crushing" sound, like something inside of it is breaking, it is ripe. And the third way is to look at the stem. If the stem is dry and brittle, it is ready.
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ZUCCHINI
Zucchini is a type of summer squash also known as "courgette" or "marrow." It is either green or pale green and is used as a staple in Italy, where it was developed. It is versatile, has a mild flavor and is popular in rice dishes.
How to prepare:
Wash zucchini gently as it can be pierced easily. Dry and remove stem ends. It is not necessary to peel zucchini.
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ZUCCHINI FLOWERS
The large flower of the zucchini are both edible and decorative. They can be eaten stuffed or gently fried in flour or a thin batter.
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ALMOND/ALMONDS
The almond tree is a member of the rose family and is also related to the plum and apricot. Almonds are the seeds of fruit that are either bitter or sweet. Sweet almonds are used raw or cooked -- the most popular being the Jordan almond. Bitter almonds need to be cooked before being used, as they contain prussic acid. A milk substitute can be made with water and ground almonds.
Because the trees that bear sweet and bitter almonds grow easily in the sandy, rocky soil of the region, these nuts have always been extremely important to the local diet. Used in cooking (both to thicken sauces and to add flavor), the nuts are also eaten whole. Green (that is to say unripe and still soft) almonds are also enjoyed, especially with wine and cheese.
Mentioned in the Book of Genesis and as among the fruits offered to Joseph, almonds, in nearly any form, have been considered an Eastern Mediterranean regional treat for thousands of years. In addition to simply snacking on them, the people use them in making a variety of soups, cakes and stuffing for poultry. The most beloved product of the almond, however, is the candy known as marzipan.
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BAKING POWDER
Baking powder, a combination of starch or flour, an acid ingredient such as acid salt, and baking soda, is a leavening agent that causes dough to rise during baked. The baking soda reacts with the acid ingredient, forming minute gas bubbles, which in turn causes the food to rise.
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BAKING SODA
Baking soda, also known as bicarbonate of soda, is a key ingredient in baking powder. It is a leavening agent used in a combination with baking powder or in mixtures containing an acid ingredient. When using baking soda, bake the dish as soon as possible because the baking soda begins to react very quickly, especially if it comes in contact with a liquid.
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BARLEY
Barley is a grain that has been cultivated since ancient times. It is most often used in stews and soups, as it serves as a thickening agent. It is also used to brew alcohol and make sugar.
How to prepare for cooking:
Barley does not need presoaking before cooking.
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BROAD BEAN/BROAD BEANS
Like pasta, the people of the Eastern Mediterranean have always perceived dishes based on grains and beans as "poor people's food." Despite this stigma, dishes based on beans, or pulses, are among the most popular of dishes in the region and are served as often in the homes and restaurants of the rich as in those of the poor.
Broad beans, or fava beans, are thick, flat beans that are white, beige, or brown. They come from an annual leguminous plant that is harvested for its large, flat seeds, and can be bought fresh or dried. Broad beans been cultivated since the time of the ancient Egyptians and are used heavily in Mediterranean cuisines.
How to prepare:
Beans are especially adored when seasoned with spices, garlic, onions and herbs. They can be served cold as salads or hot as vegetables, and, when added to dishes containing meat, vegetables and rice they help to create marvelous stews.
Keep in mind that nearly all pulses are bought dried and have to be soaked in cold water for several hours (overnight is best) to tenderize them and shorten their cooking time. When soaking pulses, cover them with a large amount of cold water because they will swell quickly and absorb a great deal of the water.
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beans, white kidney
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BREADCRUMBS:
There are two basic families of bread crumbs: fresh and dry. Dry breadcrumbs are most often from white bread but can also be from rye or country bread. Fresh breadcrumbs, which are more delicate than dry, are commonly also produced from white bread. They are used for coating cutlets for frying and are also an excellent ingredient for stuffings.
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BREAD
Harvesting grains for bread is an ancient practice that goes back 10,000 years. The ancient Egyptians were skilled at making breads, as were the Greeks and Romans. A few years after Columbus journeyed to the New World, wheat was introduced there and has remained a staple ever since.
Bread lovers are invariably delighted when they visit any of the nations of the Eastern Mediterranean, because in addition to the various styles of round, flat pita breads (most of which have pockets for filling with a variety of foods) that are so closely associated with the area, there are literally hundreds of different breads to be found.
Historically, the Moslems, Jews and Christians of the region believe that bread was a direct gift from God, and because of this wasting bread is considered a terrible sin. In many homes, for example, even a piece of bread that falls on the floor will be picked up, kissed and returned to the table.
Whereas the breads of the Arab peoples tend to be round, flat, soft inside and out and relatively light, the breads of Greece, Turkey and Cyprus can take on any of hundreds of shapes. Whatever their shape and from whatever type of flour they are made, such breads tend to be remarkably dense and incredibly flavorful. So adored are breads in the region that nearly every nation and every religion (and sometimes even specific villages or cities) have devised their own special holiday breads, many of which are so rich that they are considered more like cakes.
Composition:
The fundamental ingredients in making bread are yeast, flour (usually wheat flour), some type of liquid, fats, sugar, salt, and eggs. Yeast (saccharomyces) is a one-celled fungus. Some yeasts change sugar in fruit juices into alcohol. Others produce carbon dioxide for leavening in making bread. There are many varieties. In bread making, either dry or cake (compressed) yeast is used. Cake yeast must be refrigerated and used by the expiration date. Dry yeast, if refrigerated, can keep indefinitely but should also be marked with an expiration stamp. Flour is produced from the grinding of wheat. The nutrients in bread are measured by the percentage of whole wheat preserved in the loaf.
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BULGUR/BULGHUR
Bulgur, or bulghur, is made by boiling whole-wheat grains, drying them and coarsely grinding them. Bulgur is very popular throughout the region. Known as "bulguar" in Turkish and "pourgouri" by Greeks and sometimes as "cracked wheat" in English, bulgur is nothing more than coarsely ground wheat. By whatever name, it is extremely popular and one of its best examples is in the salad known as tabbouleh.
How to choose:
Select packaged bulgur, as packaging minimizes the chances of contamination.
How to store:
Store bulgur in its original package. Once it is opened, keep it in an airtight container.
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CHICKPEAS
Chickpeas have been found in ancient Jericho and were commonly grown around the Mediterranean in ancient times. Remains of chickpeas have been dated to around 2000 B.C. Ancient chickpeas were cultivated with barley and rye crops.
Chickpeas are annuals. They are also known as garbanzo beans, Spanish beans, or ceci. They are the edible pods from a branching bush grown throughout the Mediterranean. The pods wrinkle as they dry. They may be boiled, pureed, or baked.
How to choose:
Chickpeas are available in cans. If buying dried chickpeas, choose beans that are clean and not too wrinkled.
How to store:
Store covered in a cool, dry place. Beans do not store indefinitely, so do not mix older beans with new beans.
How to prepare:
Chickpeas, like most shell beans, must soak before being cooked. Some are sold presoaked, so as to shorten cooking times, but it is preferable not to use these, as they are less flavorful. Sort the beans and remove any that are broken. Rinse in cold water and then soak. Cover with a cloth and leave at room temperature for 6 to 8 hours.
To make sure they are ready to cook, cut one in half; if it is uniform in color all the way through, it is ready. If it is white and hard, continue soaking.
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CORNSTARCH:
Cornstarch, sometimes referred to as cornflour, is a fine, white flour obtained from cornmeal. Cornmeal is pulverized until the starch can be extracted. It is then used for thickening sauces and baking cakes.
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CORNMEAL
Cornmeal, or maize, is finely ground corn. This mild-tasting cereal grain is used as the basis for polenta, corn breads, and as a coating for batter frying. Cornmeal is a good alternative to pasta and rice and is an excellent source of carbohydrates. It is hard and bright yellow and is often used for feed.
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FLOUR
The use of flour dates back to the early Middle Ages, when finely ground cereal grains -- such as wheat, barley, oats, rye, rice, and corn -- were milled, sifted, and separated to form flour. The term generally refers to a wheat product.
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HAZELNUTS
Hazelnuts, also known as filberts, are small, brown, round nuts. Because of their sweet, rich flavor, the can be found in many desserts and sweets in the region, especially in Turkish Delight. No other nut accompanys chocolate better than the hazelnut. Chopped or flaked, hazelnuts can also be sprinkled over many rice and vegetable dishes.
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KADAIF
Known in the Middle East as 'konafa,' kadaif is a Greek and Turkish flour-and-water pastry that has been sieved into very thin strands. The pastry itself looks a lot like shredded wheat. Incredibly light and remarkably easy to work with, kadaif is usually served as a dessert. It is most often layered or rolled with chopped nuts, baked then soaked in syrup. Desserts made with kadaif are one of the true pleasures of the Middle East.
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LENTIL/LENTILS
Lentils are an ancient product that has been cultivated in the Mediterranean since as far back as 6700 B.C. Lentils were one of the first seeds used as food. Lentils are annuals that are related to beans but are the seeds of a grass. They are legumes and are green, brown, or orange-red. Puy lentils are French lentils that are dark brown in color and come in varying sizes. Lentils are often used in salads, soups, or combined with pasta.
How to choose:
Most lentils are sold in packages and are ready to use. If buying fresh lentils, ask the vendor about their age. Lentils do have a shelf life. Look for clean lentils with few stones.
How to store:
Store covered in a cool, dry place. Beans do not store indefinitely, so do not mix older beans with new beans.
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NUTS
In ancient times, the Egyptians, Babylonians and Sumerians believed that because the most popular nuts of the area were seeds, each nut had the potential for giving birth to an entire new universe. That did not, however, stop people from eating and enjoying the special flavors of the nuts of the region. In addition to being eaten plain, nearly all of the nuts readily available - hazelnuts, pistachio nuts, walnuts, almonds and poppy seeds - make their way into the cooking pot. Egyptians and Syrians use ground almonds and pine nuts to thicken sauces; the Jordanians and the Israelis learned from the Iranians how to make a walnut sauce that is flavored by pomegranate juice; and in Turkey and Cyprus nearly every meat stew will be complemented by whole or lightly crushed hazlenuts and pistachio nuts.
Traditionally, the most popular nuts of the region have been walnuts, almonds, pistachio nuts, pine nuts, sunflower seeds and chestnuts. In modern times, lichee nuts, cashews and peanuts have also become part of the regional cuisine.
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PASTA
According to popular folklore, when Marco Polo returned to Venice after his 12th century voyage to China, he brought back the secret of making pasta. All of which makes for a fine story, except that like many of the other popular beliefs about food, it is a myth. A good deal of evidence indicates that the Italians learned to make pasta from the Egyptians as long as six centuries before the beginning of the Christian Era. Today, most archaeologists agree that pasta (known in Arabic as "rishta") developed simultaneously in three places - China, Egypt and Cyprus, and only from there made its way into the Italian and European repertoire.
Whether it came via Cyprus or Egypt is not known, but we do know that the peasants of Greece were eating pasta long before it came to be thought of as an Italian food staple. Several hundred years before Julius Caesar was born, for example, some unknown Greek invented a dish in which he added olive oil, pepper, leeks and chickpeas to his pasta. It is also known that during the same time Greeks were dining on timballos, sweet and savory pies, made with meat and pasta.
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PHYLLO DOUGH
Without phyllo dough (also spelled 'filo'), the cookery of the Eastern Mediterranean would be a poor shadow of itself. Known as brik to most Arabs, and yufka to Turks, the paper-thin leaves of this dough are the basis for hundreds of different recipes. Burrekas, Baklava, Greek spanikopita, and the famous Egyptian pastilla, a pigeon pie seasoned with ginger, saffron, cinnamon, allspice, sugar and almonds would simply not exist without phyllo. Even the pastry chefs of Vienna would have been at a terrible loss if they had not learned the secret of making this dough from the Turks, for it is virtually impossible to make an acceptable apple strudel without phyllo.
The only problem is that making phyllo leafs is an art form, one that takes far too much time and effort to be practical for most cooks. The process involves making a dough that has to be kneaded for as long as two hours. The dough is then divided into small balls, kneaded again for an hour or so, and then pulled and stretched until it is almost transparent. The process has reduced quite a few amateur chefs to a state of quiet hysteria.
Fortunately, high quality leaves of phyllo dough are now available commercially. In many places in Greece, Turkey, Lebanon and Jordan, many people buy it from local bakery shops, but wherever one lives in the Eastern Mediterranean (as well as throughout North America and Europe), good phyllo is also available frozen. Most frozen phyllo comes in packages containing between 20 - 25 sheets, each measuring 40 x 45 cm. The sheets are well wrapped, easy to store and equally easy to use.
Several hints may prove useful to those who have not previously worked with phyllo. So long as the sheets remain in their sealed plastic bags they can be refrigerated or frozen until ready for use. Do not, however, refrigerate phyllo for more than a week and do not freeze it for more than three months, because thereafter the leaves become soggy. Once the plastic bag has been opened, the sheets should be used quickly or they will become dry and brittle.
Before working with phyllo dough, remove it from the refrigerator 30 - 45 minutes before use. When cutting sheets of phyllo, pile them one on top of the other, with no air between them. If the sheets must be left to stand for more than a few minutes, cover them with a slightly damp cloth to keep them from becoming dry and brittle. Keep in mind as well that most recipes using phyllo dough can be completely prepared and frozen before cooking. They can then be put directly from the freezer into the oven without thawing. Under no circumstances should phyllo pastries be cooked or reheated in a microwave oven.
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PINE NUTS
Known in America either as "Indian nuts" or by their Spanish name of "pinoles," these minuscule nuts are often used in stuffed vine leaves, in making pesto and mixed together with many rice dishes. Fried in oil they are also commonly sprinkled over salads.
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PISTACHIO/PISTACHIOS
Mentioned often in the Koran and in the works of many Arab poets, the small, hard shelled pistachio nut has always been considered a luxury throughout the region. Despite the difficulty in opening their shells, the nuts are adored for their color and rich flavor and as well as being eaten plain are used in pat(s, sprinkled over hundreds of different dessert, rice and meat dishes, and served together with cheeses. Their bright green color enlivens foods. They are sold either salted or unsalted and sometimes their shells are dyed bright red.
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POPPY SEEDS
Poppy seeds come from the opium poppy but the seeds are not narcotic because they do not form until the plant has fully ripened and has lost its opium content. Whole seeds are scattered over bread, mixed with pasta, and used with pastries and cakes. Crushed seeds are mixed with sugar and honey as a filling for cakes and pastries.
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RICE
Rice is a cereal grain of which there are many varieties. It has been cultivated for nearly 6,000 years. It probably originated in India and from there spread to the Mediterranean. Rice is pronounced "riso" in Italian, "aroz" in Spanish, and "riz" in French.
How to prepare:
Brown rice takes a 2 to 1 ratio of water to rice and requires about an hour of cooking time. White rice takes a 2 to 1 ratio of water to rice and requires about 20 minutes of cooking time. Wild rice takes a 3 to 1 ratio of water to rice and requires about 45 minutes of cooking time.
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SEMOLINA
after the bran and the wheat germ are removed, semolina is the floury residue.
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SESAME SEEDS
Sesame seeds come from an annual tropical and subtropical herbaceous plant native to India and grown for its white, red, or black seeds. The white seeds are used in Mexican and Japanese cooking and in the Middle East are ground into a paste called "tahini." In fact, without sesame seeds, tahini, humus and many other Middle Eastern dishes could not exist. The black seeds are more biting and are often roasted before use. They yield an oil when pressed, which is often used in Asian cooking. They are sometimes referred to as "benne." Sesame seeds are an excellent source of protein. Due to the fact that they are eaten in small quantities, they furnish only small amounts of iron and vitamin E. Use the seeds untoasted over breads, rolls, cookies and biscuits. Use toasted (simply place in a medium oven until pale brown) on vegetable dishes, over salads, with cream cheese, tahini, humus and in pastries.
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CREAM OF TARTAR
Cream of tartar, a leavening agent, is one of the main ingredients in baking powder. It is found in the juice of grapes after they have been crushed for wine-making. It is then refined and used as a baking agent.
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WALNUTS
Walnuts are commonly found in the Mediterranean and were used extensively by ancient Greeks and Romans. They are meaty and have a bit of a bite to them. They are used extensively in baking and in making sauces for both poultry and pasta. The American white walnut is known as "butternut."
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YEAST
Yeast is a microscopic fungus that multiplies quickly. It is used as a leavening agent for various kinds of dough. When yeast is added to dough, it creates an alcoholic fermentation that converts sugar and starch into ethanol and carbon dioxide. The resultant gases cause the dough to rise.
Types:
Fresh yeast (cake, compressed) - This yeast is used primarily in bread baking and should always be refrigerated.
Dried yeast - Refrigerate dried yeast but use only half the amount that you would use of fresh yeast, as dried yeast is more concentrated.
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ALLSPICE
Allspice was brought to Europe by the Spanish conquistadors from the New World. Allspice berries are green when picked and then allowed to dry and turn brown. It is at this point that they can be used. Allspice has a combination of flavors -- nutmeg, cinnamon, and cloves -- hence its name. For best results, grind the whole berries in a spice grinder. Allspice is also known as "Jamaica pepper" or "myrtle pepper." Whole allspice berries should be used for boiling fish, in stews, meat marinades, spiced fruits, chutneys and pickles. Ground allspice is ideal for soups, vegetable dishes, in fruit cakes, relishes, chutneys and in baked fruits such as bananas, figs and pineapple.
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ANISE/ANISEED
Anise is related to dill, fennel, and cumin and originates in the Mediterranean basin. Both the leaves and seeds of this plant are used for flavoring. Its seeds, which are tiny, brown and oval, are used primarily for baking while the leaves are used to add piquancy to alcoholic beverages (e.g., Ricard, ouzo, arrack). Anise is also known as "aniseed" or "sweet cumin." Whole anise seeds should be used in fish chowders, meat stews, vegetables (red and green cabbage, carrots, turnips, beet, cauliflower) and can also be scattered over rolls and bread. Ground anise is excellent in soups, fish dishes, marinades and cakes. Aniseed, which gives the flavor to ouzo, arak and Pernod is useful in any dish in which the distinct flavor of licorice is wanted.
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BASIL/BASILICUM
Of all the known herbs, none has more tales or superstitions associated with it than basil. Some say that basil has the power to bring the dead back to life, others claim that basil leaves can protect one from the evil eye, and yet others are willing to swear that eating basil leaves brings one closer to God. Basil has long been considered a "royal herb"; it is said that in ancient Greece only the king was permitted to cut it. Even today, in some Mediterranean nations, young men still wear a sprig of basil when they go courting. It is believed that if their intentions are less than serious, the sprig will wilt. In other areas, basil leaves worn around the neck are thought to protect one from magical spells.
Basil, coming in several dozen varieties, is an annual in the mint family. Basil originates in tropical Asia, Africa, and the Pacific Islands. This versatile, aromatic herb is especially important in Greek, Turkish and Arabic cookery, often used together with garlic. The chopped leaves may be added to soups; fish and egg dishes; meat and poultry stews; in making sausages; and in potato, rice and bean salads. It is especially good with vegetables such as zucchini, onions and eggplant and ideal for use in tomato and green sauces, in particular the renowned Italian pesto. Its oil is used to make perfume.
How to grow:
An excellent choice for planting in pots or window boxes, the leaves dry and freeze well. Seeds should be sown in the spring and once the plants have established themselves it is best to nip the tops to make them bush out.
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BAY
Bay leaves come from large evergreen bay trees that are native to the Mediterranean. Unlike most herbs, they are more potent dried than fresh. An important ingredient in cooking sweet or savory Middle-Eastern and Mediterranean dishes, the strong and spicy bay leaves should be used moderately in soups, fish dishes, meat stews, pot roast, boiled beef, tongue and poultry dishes. The leaves are good with lentil and bean dishes, and are excellent for making poultry stuffing. Bay leaves are also often used as ingredients in marinades and sauces or as part of a bouquet garni. If used alone, they are most effective if broken first and then removed before serving. They are also known as "sweet bay" or "sweet laurel."
How to grow:
Untrimmed, bay trees which are members of the laurel family, grow to 15 - 18 meters in height. Despite this, this evergreen can be trimmed and grown in a tub so long as it is pruned early in the spring and at least twice each summer. The leaves can be picked at any time and the tree may be propagated by cuttings taken in late summer. The leaves dry well.
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BOUQUET GARNI
A bouquet garni is nothing more than a bunch of herbs tied together with string. Often it is tied to the handle of a pan and allowed to cook with the other ingredients. Thyme, parsley, a bay leaf, and a few peppercorns tied together in a piece of cotton also make a nice bouquet garni. Another good combination is rosemary, savory, marjoram, chervil, and basil.
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CARDAMOM
Cardamom, sometimes spelled 'cardamon,' is native to India but is also grown in Sri Lanka and Guatemala. This is an expensive spice because each seed pod must be snipped off the plant by hand. The pods, which are black, green or white, are then dried and bleached until they are buff-colored. Inside the pods are small black seeds which have a warm, slightly pungent and highly aromatic flavor and taste. In Arabic and in everyday modern Hebrew the spice is known as "hehl."
Use whole seed pods in rice dishes, pickles, spiced wine, punches and coffee. Use ground cardomom in curries, meat loaves, kebabs, hamburgers, baked apples, apple pie, pumpkin pie, sprinkled over melon, in spiced fruit salads and in Danish pastries.
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CHILI PEPPER/CHILI PEPPERS
It was Columbus who first brought chilies to Europe. Chili peppers are from a tropical American plant from whose pods, or peppers, we get cayenne, which is the very hottest member of the pepper family, and hot-pepper sauce. They are rich in vitamins A and C, but because chili peppers are used in such small quantities in cooking, that benefit is is rarely obtained. There are over 200 varieties of chili peppers, found fresh and dried, with variable amounts/levels of heat and can be red or green. Well-known types include jalapeno (small, dark green, mild to medium hot), poblano (large, dark green, mild to medium hot), Anaheim (mild, long, green), and serano (small and hot). Depending on which brand and variety you buy and how much you use in your cooking, chili is for all practical purposes exchangeable with cayenne.
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CINNAMON
Cinnamon comes from the bark of an evergreen tree that is a member of the laurel family and native of India. It is one of the few spices not obtained from the seeds, flowers, or fruits of a plant. The bark is peeled, dried and curled into sticks (sometimes known as quills or pipes), and is also sold in powdered form. Use cinnamon sticks for cooking apples, prunes, oranges; spiced fruits to be served with poultry and meat; rice dishes, pickling vinegar, and to make hot wine punches. Use ground in spiced hot grapefruit, meat dishes, vegetable dishes, stewed fruits (apples, bananas, oranges, prunes), fruit pies, pumpkin pie and for sprinkling over milk and custard puddings; also for cinnamon toast.
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CLOVE/CLOVES
Cloves take their name from the Latin word for "nail" which they resemble. Cloves are the dried unopened flower buds of evergreen trees that originally grew on the Moluccas or Spice Islands but are now also found in Indonesia, and the West Indian Islands. Whole cloves are inserted into an onion for making soups and sauces, in boiling beef, for baked ham, spiced tongue, beet salad, pickled vegetables, baked and stewed fruits and apple sauce. Ground cloves are ideal for meat stews, curries, vegetables (beets, sweet potatoes, chicory), in fruit pies and pumpkin pies, spiced fruits, cakes and cookies.
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CORIANDER
Coriander, which is known in Arabic, Turkish and everyday Hebrew as "cusbara," is an herb, originated in southern Europe, but the seeds of the shrub are used as a spice. It is also known as Chinese parsley and is a member of the carrot family. Fresh coriander is also known as "cilantro." Especially popular in the cookery of the Mediterranean basin and Arabic world, whole seeds are used in pickled fish, curries, pickled vegetables, liqueurs, and even coffee. The ground seeds are used in soups, fish dishes, meat stews, curries, chicken dishes, sausage dishes, stuffings, lentil dishes, puddings and custards, cakes and Middle Eastern sweets.
How to grow:
Coriander may be grown in pots and seeds should be sown in the spring. Leaves may be picked at any time but the plants should be cut down as soon as any sign of flowering begins. The stems should then hung to dry so that the seeds can be collected. Best when used fresh, the leaves can be frozen but do not dry well. The seeds, used in pickling spices, dry well.
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CUMIN
Cumin, a member of the parsley family, comes from a small plant which, although native to the Nile Valley, is now cultivated all over the world. Cumin seeds look like anise, dill or caraway seeds and are used in curries and chili powder, meat stews, Mexican dishes and chutney. The Dutch and Swiss use cumin seeds in cheeses and in Alsace and Germany they are indispensable to sauerkraut dishes. Ground cumin is used in soups, fish dishes, meat loaves, curries, Mexican and Turkish dishes, stuffed vegetables (eggplant, peppers, tomatoes), dried bean dishes, sauces.
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DILL
Dill is an annual herb that originated in the Mediterranean. It has feathery green leaves and is now quite common in northern European cooking. Famous for pickling, the mild anise taste of dill goes well with soups, fish dishes, salads and egg dishes. The chopped leaves (which should always be added at the end of cooking) are equally good with lamb and veal, in creamed chicken and with vegetables such as tomatoes, cabbage and mushrooms. Invaluable in making fresh sauerkraut or pickled cauliflower, dill is also very popular in making cucumber and potato salads and in sour cream sauces.
How to grow:
Native to the Mediterranean, dill can be grown in pots or window boxes if the plants are cut down when they reach about 20 cm in height. The seeds and leaves can both be dried but do not freeze well.
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FENNEL/FENNELS
Cultivated in the Mediterranean basin since Biblical times, the aromatic fennel plant, a member of the carrot family and a close cousin of the aniseed shrub, is a common ingredient in regional dishes. With the mild flavor of anise, the edible part of this plant (actually an herb) is the fleshy bulbous stem at the base of the leafy stalk.
Although fennel is extremely popular in salads (uncooked, for example, it goes very well with nothing more than a simple vinaigrette dressing), there are a large variety of recipes for cooking and using this delicious vegetable in a multitude of ways. There are also several recipes that rely on arak, the liqueur derived from fennel, as an ingredient. Even teetotalers should have no objection to cooking with arak as the cooking process boils off all of the alcohol in the liqueur.
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GARLIC
Perhaps because it is indispensable to the cooking style of the entire Mediterranean basin, there is very little that we do not know about garlic. Certainly since the time of the ancient Egyptians, there has been no food bearing shrub that has inspired more discussion and speculation than the garlic plant.
Sister to the onion, shallot, leek and chive, garlic was of special interest to the Greeks and Romans who, in addition to enjoying its flavor, found many marvelous medical reasons to justify its use. Many Greeks remain convinced to this day that it protects them from vampires. Heroditus wrote that the Hebrew slaves who built the great Pyramids were fed raw garlic for their health and strength and the slaves who built the Pyramid of Cheops refused to work without their daily portion of garlic. Aristophanes advised athletes to eat garlic before competitions in order to maintain their endurance and Virgil, possibly in a cynical mood, suggested that it be made a part of the diet of intellectuals to add to their sexual potency. Pliny the Elder maintained that garlic was a cure for tuberculosis, Celsius saw it as a cure for fever and Hippocrates, although he thought it was bad for the eyes, recommended it as an excellent laxative. Later, the prophet Mohammed advocated the use of garlic as an antidote in case of stings and snake bites.
Myth and metaphysics aside, if there is a distinctive flavor to the cuisine of the Mediterranean basin, a good deal of credit must go to the popular use of garlic. Available year round because it hangs well without spoiling, this important staple of the regional cuisine will add an irreplaceable flavor and zest to even the dullest of dishes. Even the most dedicated of gourmets knows that an occasional, ultimately simple luncheon of coarse bread sprinkled over with olive oil and spread generously with crushed garlic can make for a non-paralleled feast. One should be aware that garlic grows in "heads" and each head contains anywhere from 16 - 64 cloves. Recipes invariably call for the use of a specific number of cloves as the use of entire garlic heads would be somewhat of an exaggeration.
How to choose:
Select full, mature garlic bulbs that are white with a nice, papery outer layer.
How to store:
Store garlic in a small, airy container, using cloves only as you need them. Single cloves dry out within a week, while whole heads will last for several weeks. Do not refrigerate garlic.
How to prepare:
Remove the peel and strike the clove firmly with the wide part of a knife so that the skin splits then chop as needed. When using several cloves, place them in a small bowl and pour boiling water over them. After five minutes, rinse under cool water and the skins should come off without trouble. When using garlic raw (in salads or mayonnaise), the cloves should be peeled, but there is no general agreement about the necessity to peel garlic when it is to be crushed, chopped or otherwise prepared prior to cooking. (Israelis and Greeks tend to peel them; Turks tend to use them unpeeled).
Tips:
When frying garlic, take care never to let it blacken, as it tends to lose its flavor and become bitter when overcooked. To eliminate the smell of garlic from the hands, rinse the hands with cold water, sprinkle a bit of salt on the palms, scrub gently and then rinse again with fresh water. To offset the strong aftertaste of garlic at a meal, fresh parsley is a good corrective.
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GINGER
Ginger is the root or rhizome of a perennial plant native to Southeast Asia, India and China and was probably the first Oriental spice to make its way westward. Now grown in many places, including the Mediterranean Basin, in several hundred variaties, it is available fresh, preserved, pickled, sugared, dried, grated, shaved and ground. Mature ginger is stronger in flavor than immature green ginger. Use fresh in fish and meat dishes, vegetables (onions and artichokes), dried beans and in stews. Use ground over melon and grapefruit, in soups, fish dishes, chicken dishes, meat stews, sweet sauces, fruit pies, pumpkin pie, stewed fruits, gingerbread cakes, cookies and chutneys.
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HERBS
For five thousand years the people in the Eastern Mediterranean have been enamored by the aromatic plants known as herbs. The ancient Hebrews, Egyptians, Babylonians, Sumerians and Assyrians all had extensive knowledge about herbs and, in addition to their use in seasoning foods and as medicines, these delicate plants have also had a large role in legend, fable and witchcraft.
Egyptians once considered basil so godlike a plant that only the Pharaohs were allowed to cut it, and then only with a golden sickle. So important were tarragon and bay to the Sumerians that somewhere about 4,500 BCE they appointed Gula, the goddess of sorcery, as guardian of them. In ancient Greece and Rome, Hectate, the mother of the enchantresses Medea and Circe, found hundreds of ways of using herbs to bewitch or poison her enemies.
Even though herbs continue to have medicinal, and some say magical applications, they are most commonly thought of in terms of good dining. It is no less true today than in the time of the Pharaohs that the discrete use of herbs can add a great deal of zest and flavor to even the most simple of dishes.
Herbs always have more flavor when they are fresh. Because it is often difficult to find them fresh in local markets, many find it pleasing and challenging to raise herbs at home. There is nothing daunting about raising herbs and many can be grown in window boxes or pots. Among the favorites for growing at home are parsley, thyme, oregano, savory, tarragon, mint, chervil and sage. In addition to the satisfaction of using them in many dishes, the scent of even a small herb garden adds enormous charm to any balmy evening. If some herbs are not available in fresh form, however, do not hesitate to buy the dried herbs that generally come in plastic containers. Keep in mind also that certain herbs seem "made" to complement certain foods.
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HONEY
Nearly 9,000 years ago, at the dawn of civilization, a group of hunters and food-gathers came across an oasis not far from the Dead Sea and settled there to build what most archaeologists now agree was the first city built on earth. The remains of that ancient settlement, located only 1 1/2 kilometers from the modern city of Jericho, have fascinated modern scientists for many years, and nothing has fascinated them more than the special storerooms and large clay pots that were obviously meant for the storage of honey.
The people of Mesopotamia saw honey as a magical substance, with the power to make gods immortal and immune to illness. The Greeks, according to the ancient historian Herodotus, were no less caught up with this mythology. They believed, for example, that Dionysus, the god of wine, decided to live on Mount Parnassus when he found that the streams of the mountain ran with honey.
Honey has never ceased to play an important role in the traditions of the Eastern Mediterranean. Following its first mention in the Old Testament, when the Lord promised Moses "a land flowing with milk and honey," there are more than 120 mentions of honey in the Bible, one of the best known being the Proverb that commands: "...my son, eat thou honey, for it is good, and the honeycomb is sweet to the taste." Nor was it important to the Jews alone.. Joseph and Mary, the parents of Jesus considered it a special treat; Jesus himself is said to have gained special pleasure from drinking honey; and the Prophet Mohammed enjoyed it both plain, in cakes and taken together with tea.
At no time does honey play a more important role in the cultural traditions of the people of the region than during the celebration of the New Year. During the holiday of Rosh ha Shannah (which literally means the onset of the new year), Jews dip apples in honey to symbolize hopes for a sweet and good year. When Moslems celebrate the New Year they rub their lips with a small spoon of honey to symbolize the sweetness of life. And Greek Orthodox Catholics eat honey cookies while they pray for a good, rich year.
There was a time, however, when honey was not all that popular in the region. During the reign of the Pharaohs, it was slaves who collected honey for the royal households and, as illustrated in Egyptian tomb relics as long as 5,000 years ago, honey was collected by smoking bees from their nests. Because bees had little fondness for this activity, the chore was not always rewarding to those slaves whose job it was to get close to the bees' nests. To make life even more complicated, stealing or even sampling from the honey collected for the pharaohs was considered a crime punishable by death.
Despite these hazards, the pleasant flavor and energy-giving properties of the sweet clear syrup made honey the sweetener 'par excellence.' Another virtue that made honey popular was the discovery that because it is almost pure sugar, honey ferments very readily and a honeycomb left in water for several days produces a delicious and mildly intoxicating liquid. This honey ale, more commonly known as mead, was a popular drink for thousands of years.
Nor did honey escape the scrutiny of medical practitioners. Hippocrates said that when combined with pepper and vinegar it was useful in treating "feminine disorders" and could be used to revive victims of suffocation. The Greek naturalist Theophrastus said that honey had "a calming effect on elephants, eunuchs, parrots and temperamental cooks."
Honey comes from the nectar of flowers and has been used since the Neolithic period to sweeten and preserve. It is made of fructose and glucose sugars, which are easier to digest than sugar beet or sugar cane. Fructose, however, is very sweet, so honey should be used sparingly. There are many varieties of honey; the best are honeys produced from single flowers, such as orange blossom, thyme, lavender, and acacia. Honey, when used in baking, also serves to extend the life of baked goods and gives a fine texture to bread crusts.
Tips:
Should honey crystallize, it can be reconstituted: place the jar in warm water or microwave 1 cup/ 250 ml of honey for up to 3 minutes, or until the crystals dissolve. Be sure to stir it every 30 seconds.
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MARJORAM
Marjoram, native to the Mediterranean region, is a perennial in the mint family that is closely related to oregano. Its soft, small green leaves are best when added fresh at the end of cooking. It is used in vegetable, fish and poultry dishes, oil and vinegar salad dressings, and soups. It is also used in tomato based sauces and other dishes in Italian and Provencal cooking.
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MINT
There are about 20 varieties of mint that grow in the Mediterranean basin and the chopped leaves of nearly all go well with grilled lamb and veal, in making mint jelly, and to garnish fruit cups. Mint sprigs are especially good to complement new potatoes and nearly any dish with carrots, eggplant or peas. Mint is also a favorite for making teas and tisanes.
Growing:
All versions of mint like rich soil and the roots run underground to send up numerous shoots. The best way to contain a mint plant from spreading too far and choking the roots of neighboring plants is to place it in a pot and sink this either into the ground or a window box. Mint should be cut back every time fresh shoots appear, and if the plant becomes too dense new plants may be started from shoots.
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MUSTARD
Mustard seeds can be either black or brown, white or yellow and neither the seeds nor their crushed powder have any scent until liquid is added. Crushed mustard can be mixed into a paste with water, white wine or vinegar. Whole seeds used in boiled beets, cabbage, sauerkraut, pickling and chutneys. Powder is used in fish dishes, poultry dishes, meat dishes, deviled dishes, sauces, egg dishes, cheese dishes, mayonnaise and salad sauces.
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NUTMEG/MACE
Both nutmeg and mace come from the fruit of the nutmeg tree. Mace comes from the outer husk of the fruit which is peeled and left in blades, preserved in syrup or ground, while nutmeg is the ground dried fruit itself. Mace, which is stronger than nutmeg is used in soups, rice dishes, sauce, fish and shellfish dishes, veal stews, sauces, cakes, cookies and in making hot punches. Grated nutmeg is used in fish dishes, sauces, pickling, in hot punches, veal stews, cakes and cookies.
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OREGANO
Oregano is a perennial in the mint family that is related to marjoram. It is also called "wild marjoram." It originated in the Mediterranean region, and in Greek it means, "the joy of the mountains." It is used in vegetable and fish dishes and is heavily used in Italian and Provencal cooking. The flavor of oregano is also considered indispensable to many tomato sauces. Many Middle Eastern recipes call for its use in meatballs, sausages and stuffings.
How to grow:
Oregano may be grown from seed but is far more easily propagated by division in spring or autumn. A relatively easy herb to grow in window boxes or pots, the leaves freeze and dry well.
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PAPRIKA
Paprika is a member of the Capsicum family and is generally fairly mild. Some paprika mixtures also contain cayenne or chili peppers which make them hotter. Indispensable in Hungarian cooking and in soups, fish dishes, veal, lamb, sausage dishes, goulash, beef dishes, Spanish dishes, with pasta in sauces, with cheese dishes and as an aesthetic garnish over cheese, eggs, potatoes, cauliflower and other pale colored dishes.
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PARSLEY
There are several varieties of parsley but the Italian variety, with flat leaves, is the most popular in most Mediterranean nations. Probably the most often used of herbs, parsley is not only an attractive garnish but also serves as a subtle addition to soups, stews, salads, sauces and stuffings. It goes with all meats, fish and poultry, and is ideal for use in omelets and scrambled eggs.
How to grow:
Despite its popularity it is not easy to grow parsley. Slow to germinate, the plant will sometimes not sprout at all. Ideally planted in April or May, one should make shallow holes in well worked moisture-retaining soil. The holes should then be lined with peat, the parsley seeds sprinkled in and then covered with about 5 mm of soil. One should then wait 5 - 8 weeks before despairing, keeping the soil well watered. If by that time the plant has not germinated, it is worth trying again. Although dried parsley can be found virtually everywhere, it will never prove as rewarding as fresh leaves.
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BLACK PEPPER/BLACK PEPPERS
Pepper grows on vines that thrive only within 10 degrees of the equator. The peppercorns grow in clusters like grapes, and as they ripen they turn from green to yellow to red. Those destined for sale as black pepper are picked when still slightly under-ripe and, as they dry, the outer hull turns to black. Black pepper always has a stronger flavor than white.
Whole peppercorns are used in marinades for fish and meat, in boiled beef, boiled mutton and in pickling. Ground pepper (and pepper is always best when freshly ground) is used with all savory dishes.
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WHITE PEPPER/WHITE PEPPERS
Pepper grows on vines that thrive only within 10 degrees of the equator. The peppercorns grow in clusters like grapes, and as they ripen they turn from green to yellow to red. White pepper is the fully ripe berry that has been soaked after picking to remove the outer hull which is rubbed off. White pepper always has a milder flavor than black.
Whole white peppercorns are used in marinades for fish and meat, in boiled beef, boiled mutton and in pickling. Ground pepper (and pepper is always best when freshly ground) is used with all savory dishes. Use white pepper for pale colored foods to avoid unsightly dark specks.
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ROSEMARY
The sprigs of this Mediterranean herb are used to good advantage in cooking roast lamb, veal and chicken as well as in making pot roasts and marinades. The chopped leaves are often used in soups, fish dishes, meat stews and dishes based on potatoes, peas and sweet peppers. Jordanians, Syrians and Lebanese use rosemary in fruit compotes, with grilled and fried fish, in fish stuffings and with chicken and pea soups. Because rosemary has a strong distinctive flavor it overpowers the natural taste of other herbs if not used sparingly.
How to grow:
These fragrant little bushes have attractive evergreen leaves, green on the top, gray underneath. They are beautiful to look at and have a delightful aroma. Best grown from cuttings made in late summer or early autumn, rosemary is partial to sunny spots sheltered from the wind and cold. The herb grows well in pots but should be pruned carefully to keep the bush compact. The leaves dry well.
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SAFFRON
Saffron comes from the stigmas of the autumn crocus. If you have ever wondered why this spice is so expensive (a kilo of the finest saffron costs nearly $6000), it is because each crocus has only three stigmas, each of which must be picked by hand and it takes over 500,000 stigmas to make a kilo of spice. Fortunately, a little saffron goes a long way, so no one need go bankrupt in purchasing a small container. Saffron strands are used in making bouillabaisse and other fish soups, in fish and shellfish dishes, rice dishes, chicken dishes, sauces, breads and cakes.
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SAGE
Sage is an evergreen shrub that originated in the Mediterranean. It is used in cooking to flavor meats and fish and to make teas. With its strong flavor and mildly bitter taste, sage should always be used sparingly and goes particularly well with fatty foods such as goose, duck, sausages and meat stews. It is indispensable to the famous Italian dish, saltimbocca, and many Mediterranean people use it with salads. It was originally used only for medicinal purposes.
How to grow:
Sage is best grown in pots and should be propagated by cuttings in the late spring. As the plant matures, the stalks should be cut back after flowering to encourage the bush to grow in a compact shape. Sprigs are best when picked just before the bush flowers. The leaves dry and freeze well.
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SALT
Salt is a class of compounds, the most common of which is sodium chloride. The average salt consumption is 7-25 g. daily which includes both table salt and sodium contained in foods.
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SPICES
Spices have played such an important role in world history that the Pharaohs of ancient Egypt declared them to be sacred. Several Roman Emperors ordered specially designed ships to be built to sail to Asia and the eastern coast of Africa to attain them and Spanish armadas conquered more than half of the New World and a good part of Asia in order to guarantee their kings and queens as large a stockpile of spices as they wanted.
The Pharaohs valued spices mostly for their use in making the incense known as "kuphi" - literally "holy smoke" - with which they worshipped their gods. The Romans used them primarily to hide the flavor and smell of rancid meat and spoiled fish, while the Spanish, who considered them more valuable than gold, hid supplies away in royal warehouses, well guarded from the common people who might want to do anything so foolish as to cook with them.
There is nothing difficult about cooking with spices so long as one follows three basic guidelines. First, unlike herbs which come mostly from the leaves and stems of soft stemmed aromatic plants and are almost always best when used fresh, spices may come from the roots, bark, flower buds, fruits or seeds of aromatic plants and are invariably best when dried. Second, spices should be used in quantities just sufficient enough to enhance the subtlety of a dish and not drown the inherent flavors of the foods being prepared. Finally, when preparing long cooking dishes such as stews and soups, remember that because ground spices give out their flavor quickly, they should be added only 20 - 30 minutes before the end of cooking.
Even though not all of the spices used in the cuisine of the region originated in or grow in the Mediterranean, all have important uses in the cuisine's of Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey and Greece.
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SUGAR
Sugar is expunged from either sugar beets or sugarcane and then refined in various forms. It is one of the most ancient of flavorings and was introduced to Europe through Christopher Columbus from the West Indies, where it is still a major crop.
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GRANULATED SUGAR
Granulated sugar is the sugar most often found in everyday use for such things as coffee and cereal. It is ideal for making caramel.
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BROWN SUGAR
Brown sugar is a granular, refined sugar. Molasses is added for color and flavor. There are both light and dark brown sugars.
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CASTER SUGAR
Caster sugar is simply granulated sugar that, through a milling process, becomes extremely fine and, therefore, dissolves faster. As a result, it is ideal for baking recipes where the coarse texture of granulated sugar would otherwise affect the delicacy of the dish, such as with meringues or sponge cakes.
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CONFECTIONER'S SUGAR
Confectioner's sugar, sometimes referred to as powdered sugar or icing sugar, is the finest of all sugars. It is used primarily for icing and decorating cakes, cookies and other sweets. Always sift icing sugar before using to break up any lumps.
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SUMAC
Whole or ground, sumac is used in a wide variety of Mediterranean recipes. The sumac bush grows wild in the Middle East and fills the landscape with its beautiful deep red color. Sumac berries vary in color, although ground sumac is usually found in a brick red or brownish color. Sumac's sour flavor resembles that of a lemon, and was once used by the Romans as a lemon substitute. Sumac is commonly used in Turkish salads, to flavor kebabs, and to spice up fish in Lebanon and Syria.
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TAHINI
Tahini, often spelled tahina, is a paste made from ground sesame seeds. It can range from thick to thin, and from delicate to grainy. It is used primarily as a dip that accompanies many Middle Eastern dishes such as kebabs, or as a sauce for sandwiches, particularly falafel. It can also be used as a base for many sauces, and as a side sauce for vegetable and fruit dishes.
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TAMARIND SYRUP
Tamarind, also known as Indian Date, comes from an evergreen with green, oval shaped leaves. Tamarind is the red-veined yellow flowers from the evergreen, which eventually ripen into brown pods. Inside the pod is a fleshy pulp which holds the tamarind seeds. The seeds are then ground into a concentrate. It has a sour, fruity flavor and adds a wonderful aroma to dishes. When cooking with tamarind concentrate, remember that a little bit goes a long way. Keep in mind that tamarind concentrate is generally 4-5 times stronger than tamarind syrup. Use with fish, poultry, rice and meat dishes. It also enhances the flavor and adds a gentle sourness to many desserts, jams and jellies. Store in plastic bags in a cool, dark place or in the refrigerator.
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TARRAGON
With its mildly licorice and slightly bitter flavor, tarragon is considered the prince of herbs. The chopped leaves are used in salads and sauces, in many egg dishes and with fish, veal, chicken and turkey. Tarragon vinegar is excellent for salads and the herb is an excellent accompaniment with potato, mushroom, spinach and artichoke dishes. Dried tarragon should be used lightly, as it can be bitter.
How to grow:
It is easy to grow tarragon in window boxes or pots, but one should be careful of creeping roots. Grown indoors it can be used throughout the year and the leaves may be dried or frozen.
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TEA
The Chinese drank tea from the 6th century on; it was only in the 16th century that tea was introduced to Europe by Portuguese traders. Tea became stylish in the 17th century and soon became imported quite heavily. It became popular in Britain, where it is considered the national beverage. The tea bag appeared in the late 1950s -- it is considered a great convenience by some, while others see it as an aberration. Some popular varieties of tea are Earl Grey, lapsang suchong, and pekoe.
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THYME
Thyme is a powerful herb from a small evergreen shrub, of which there are many varieties. There are more than 50 varieties of thyme, all native to the Mediterranean region. Its leaves are used primarily in cooking, sometimes in liqueurs, and in some desserts. The sprigs are used for making stocks and marinades. The chopped leaves are frequently used in soups, fish, meat, poultry, cheese and egg dishes. The leaves may also be used in stews, stuffings and a wide variety of sauces. Dried thyme is somewhat banal; it is preferable to use fresh thyme if possible. Thyme is also known as "garden thyme," "French thyme," and "serpolet." It is also used to make perfumes and toothpaste.
How to grow:
All of the varieties are attractive and aromatic and give beautiful flowers and all grow easily in window boxes or pots. Thyme may be grown from seeds or small sprigs and may be planted at any time of the year.
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CHILLI SAUCE
Chilli sauce is made from steeping chillies in vinegar. They range from mild to extremely hot, and from red (from tomatoes) to yellow (from turmeric). Chilli sauces can be used in the preparation of meat and poultry dishes, stews, soups, marinades and salads, or simply as a table sauce or condiment. A general rule of thumb when using chilli sauce is that because of its heat, a few drops is usually enough to flavor the dish.
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TURMERIC
Turmeric is the irregularly shaped root of a tropical plant related to ginger. It is a perennial with large leaves and yellow flowers. Generally it is available only in powder form. In India, it is regarded as an antiseptic. Turmeric is also known as "Indian saffron." Essential to curry powder, ground turmeric is also used in fish and shellfish dishes, curries, stews, rice dishes, vegetable dishes, sauces, pickles and chutneys.
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VANILLA
Vanilla comes from pale yellow orchids that grow in tropical climates. When harvested vanilla beans are green, odorless and flavorless. It takes six months of curing, fermenting and drying to produce the dark brown, nearly black color and characteristic fragrance. And because of this, vanilla is very expensive. The distilled oil of the bean is known either as vanillin or vanilla extract. (Be sure when buying extract not to buy a synthetic product). The best vanilla comes from Mexico.
Whole beans, which are used to infuse flavor into many dishes can be rinsed, dried and used many times before their flavor recedes. To make vanilla sugar, fill a small jar with sugar and push in one or two beans. Leave the bottle tightly closed for several days to infuse the sugar with the vanilla flavor. Vanilla extract is used in chocolate and coffee sweets, puddings, cakes, biscuits and cookies, with fruits, in ice cream, custards and puddings, sweet sauces, hot chocolate drinks, and candies.
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ZA'ATAR
One of the herbs mentioned in the Bible, this slightly bitter, somewhat minty plant, called hyssop, is frequently used in Middle-Eastern cookery. Zahtar, or za'atar, is a kind of crossbreed of thyme, marjoram, and oregano. Sometimes a thyme-sumac-salt mixture will be sold as zahtar. This combination, which often includes sesame seeds, is used for dipping bread into or for seasoning meats and vegetables. The dried leaves go well with stews, salads, and fruit pies and are particularly appropriate for use with oily fish. The dried flowers of the plant are valued for use in soups.
How to grow:
Hyssop grows well in pots and thrives in partial shade. The seeds should be sown in April or May or the plant may be propagated by root division in spring or autumn. One should take care in growing hyssop however, as bees are especially attracted to the flowers.
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AMARETTO
Amaretto is an almond liqueur made from bitter almonds. It originated in northern Italy in the early sixteenth century. The name Amaretto comes from the Italian word, amaro, meaning bitter. It is used primarily in sweets and desserts but can also make a nice addition to fruit dishes.
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ARAK/OUZO
Since Biblical times, those who have inhabited the region have had a special place in their hearts and on their palates for the flavor of anise. When an alcoholic beverage is drunk nearly anywhere in the region it is frequently the anise-flavored colorless spirit called arak. Aniseed berries are diluted in a neutral spirit to produce this liquorice flavored liqueur, the favorite of the Mediterranean area. The best known are called pastis in France, arak in Arabic nations, ouzo in Greece, and raki in Turkey. Libyan kasra has a similar taste but is based on wine. This is a beverage that can be taken either with or without water. Under any circumstances it is a fairly strong intoxicant which, when mixed with water becomes cloudy. Under any circumstances, it is one of the most deceptive beverages known.
When sipping the very smooth arak, one suffers the illusion that it really must be a rather mild drink. The novice is invariably amazed at how much he or she can imbibe without feeling intoxicated. Many newcomers to the drink will consume as many as ten glasses in succession, feeling absolutely sober. And then they try to stand up...
At that point most people come rather quickly to the startling realization this particular action has become, at least temporarily, impossible. The legs and their fifty-seven controlling muscles are simply no longer willing to coordinate with the various messages of the brain. Most people do not panic at this point, for this realization is generally accompanied by a quiet kind of euphoria, in which it really doesn't matter very much if they stand up or not.
More experienced drinkers know that there is even a way to avoid getting intoxicated on arak and men and women of acute mental abilities can consume even vast quantities without losing control of their legs or moral facilities. Whether this special knowledge derived from the astute observations of some early Arab philosopher or simply by trial and error, it is known that small amounts of food imbibed while sipping arak will prevent overly severe intoxication while not depriving the drinker of the flavor and other positive side-effects.
There are also several recipes that rely on arak as an ingredient. Even teetotalers should have no objection to cooking with arak as the cooking process boils off all of the alcohol in the liqueur.
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BRANDY
Brandy is a liqueur most often associated with flambe. Once heated, the alcohol burns off. What remains is the flavorful extract. Brandy can also be added to coffee or ice cream.
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COFFEE
Nearly everyone agrees that coffee is one of the basic requirements of life, but just how this delicious beverage became established as one of the world's most favorite drinks remains somewhat of a mystery. One legend has it that the discovery of coffee came about when a 11th century Mullah, or Moslem priest, called Hadely, suffered terrible guilt feelings when he constantly found himself dozing off in the middle of his prayers. The Prophet Mohammed, touched by his sorrow, led the priest to a goat herder who told him that whenever his goats ate the berries of a certain shrub they would remain awake, jumping and romping through the night.
The Mullah found this extraordinary plant, tasted the unusual berries and spent the night in a state of delicious intoxication, one in which no way affected his intellectual capabilities. For many years afterwards, Moslems looked on coffee as a divine gift brought by from heaven by an angel as a gift to the faithful. Throughout the Middle East, coffee was taken during prayers, in the mosques and even at the Holy Temple at Mecca.
The legend is charming, but the facts are a bit different. Even though the coffee plant is indigenous to Ethiopia and Sudan, it was probably not considered the source of a potable beverage until it made its appearance in Aden in the mid-15th century. From there the drink made its way to Mecca, Damascus and Aleppo and finally to Constantinople where the first coffee house was established in 1554. By the onset of the 17th century, coffee had become known as "the wine of Araby," because Muslims regarded it as a substitute for wine which they were forbidden to drink.
Although the Italians were the first to bring coffee to Europe in 1615, it was only when the first coffee house opened in Oxford, England, forty five years later that coffee houses and coffee drinking became popular with most Europeans. Ten years after the first coffee house had opened in London, the first cafes opened in Marseille and Paris. It was another twenty years until the first coffee house opened in Vienna. By the end of the 17th century, coffee had come of age. Not only was everybody drinking coffee, but nearly everybody had devised a different way of enjoying it. Even though it was mostly curiosity that drew the first patrons to sample this exotic beverage, after a short while it was the fact that the coffee houses had become comfortable places to meet encouraged them to continue to frequent such establishments.
In no place, however, has coffee become as indispensable to life as in the Middle-East. Just a little over a century ago, the American author Mark Twain travelled to Jerusalem. While there he observed that "the people drink coffee on awakening and then continue drinking coffee through the entire day. No business deal can be closed, no one can become a friend, and no one can be seduced without the presence of coffee. With the good lord as my witness, they even serve coffee at their funerals." Not much has changed in the ensuing hundred years.
Today, nearly every Mediterranean nation has its unique coffee habits. Throughout Greece and Turkey men and women consume a remarkable number of cups of strong Turkish coffee. On the island of Corfu, for example, it is considered perfectly normal to consume over twenty cups of strong coffee every day. Whether on Corfu or in Athens, one will do well to remember that Greeks refer to their coffee as "Greek" and not Turkish, and any reference to Turkish coffee will automatically be taken as a political statement, showing preference to the disliked Turks.
Because it is so important to the success or failure of the most simple cafe or the fanciest of restaurants, well made coffee should be strong but not bitter, full of flavor and satisfying. It should never be bitter, grainy or watery. And, while it is obvious that the quality of the coffee used is important, it should be equally clear that the way in which it is made is no less critical.
Around the world, there are only six major ways in which to make coffee. But in the Eastern Mediterranean, only one is considered to be "correct." Also offered are several hints for making each cup of coffee as excellent as possible.
Boiling:
Whether termed "Turkish," "Greek" or "Bedouin" (as throughout Northern Africa), this coffee is made basically by the process of boiling. It is highly popular throughout the Mediterranean region and coffee lovers all over the world admit that a well made cup of "Turkish coffee" is a gift from the gods.
After one has obtained the ground coffee there are only two requirements for preparation.. The first is a BRIKI, the narrownecked pot in which the coffee is made and the second are FINJANS, the small cups in which the coffee is served. A good rule of thumb is that the heavier and sturdier the briki, the better the coffee.
There are many ways to make Turkish coffee, but most agree that the most reliable method for producing consistently good coffee is to fill a 1 cup briki to within 1 inch of the brim with cold water. Before heating the water, add 4 or more heaping teaspoons of coffee. For moderately sweet coffee 2 tsp of sugar should be added. The mixture should then be stirred and put on a high flame. Some believe that the coffee should not be stirred again after being put on the flame. Others disagree.
As the mixture approaches boiling it should be removed from the flame for a few moments to let the foam settle. One should take care not to let the mixture boil over, for this will result in a very messy stove top. In the same way, but without further stirring, the mixture should then be allowed to come to a boil for a second and a third time before being poured.
Pouring is also important, and it is considered polite to pour a small initial amount into each cup and only then to pour the rest. This allows the foamy top, the best part of the coffee to be shared by all. Turkish coffee should always be served with glasses of cold water on the side.
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CORN OIL
Corn oil is a versatile oil with a gentle flavor. It is extracted from sweet corn and is used mostly for salads and margarine, as well as for cooking. It is a good all-purpose oil with a high smoke point and can be used for frying and cooking.
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OLIVE OIL
The simple truth of the matter is that although the best olive oils come from the process of cold pressing (that is to say, in which olives are pressed without the use of hot water or other tricks to make their oil flow more easily), this is only one of many factors that are involved in the making of high quality oil. Many truly fine olive oils are now available and the very best of these fall into three broad categories. The very best oils are called "Extra Virgin," however those called "Virgin" and Pure are also good. Extra Virgin Oil is made from the first pressing of specially selected olives that must be picked by hand and the oil must contain less than 1% of oleic acid The acid in Virgin Oil must not exceed 2%, and that in Pure Oil cannot be more than 3.5%. Oil with more than 4-5% of oleic acid is generally considered unfit for human consumption.
Many factors contribute to the total amount of acid in oil. Two of the most important of these relate to the time at which the olives were picked and how long they had to wait after picking to be pressed. Olives that are going to be used for making oil, like grapes destined to be made into wine, should be picked at their peak of ripeness. After picking they should be pressed as quickly as possible, for the longer they stand the greater the amount of acid that begins to accumulate.
Types:
Extra-virgin or extra-extra virgin: A strongly flavored oil produced from the first pressing of ripe or semi-ripe olives. Best used in salads, as its flavor will complement rather than overpower; it is not recommended for cooking.
Virgin olive oil: This olive oil, extracted from the second pressing, has a flavor that falls between that of extra-virgin and pure olive oils.
Pure olive oil: Pure olive oil, obtained through a third pressing, is extracted from the meat of the olive after the first and second pressings; it is not recommended as it tends to be oily tasting and bland.
How to store oils:
Store oils away from heat and light. Oils can turn rancid quickly. Once opened, many oils can be refrigerated.
Using oils:
* A little oil goes a long way, especially with non-stick cookware.
* Virgin olive oil or extra-virgin olive oil is best for cooking.
* Sunflower, safflower, and corn oil are best for baking; they are low in saturated fat and contain no cholesterol.
* For stir-frying in a wok or if you need an oil that will hold up under high heat, use sunflower, safflower, or light sesame oil.
What Oils To Buy and When To Use Them:
The knowledge of whether an oil is categorized as Extra Virgin, Virgin or Pure is important but is not enough to fully describe the qualities of any given oil. Because olive oils vary as much in flavor and aroma as they do in quality, all cooks should develop the ability to select their oils according to the factors they consider most desirable. The simple truth is that Extra Virgin oil is always better, but because it is always more expensive, it may not always be in line with your budget.
When buying oil there are no firm rules about which oil to use with particular foods or in specific dishes, but one should keep in mind that each oil will bring out different aspects of the food and every oil can change the overall style of a dish. A salad dressed with a light, sweet oil will, for example, taste quite different than one that is dressed with a peppery one and, while it may add charm to a heavy roast beef, the same oil will overwhelm the flavor of a delicate veal steak.
The national cuisines of the Mediterranean basin tend to be the best suited to the use of olive oil. In fact, the cookery of Italy, southern France, Greece, Turkey, and the entire Middle-East would fade into pale oblivion were it not for the heavy reliance on olive oil.
Different chefs have different preferences for the oils they use in preparing different dishes. Some people prefer light sweet oils; others prefer peppery, heavy oils; and yet others choose two or even three different styles of oil to use for different purposes. All major chefs agree that one will do well to avoid the over-refined supermarket oils, and that any chef, professional or at-home, will do well to find a reliable source of oil before starting to prepare their favorite dishes.
One valid suggestion is to try the various oils available and determine which are most suited to your tastes. All kitchens should be equipped with two or three oils, ranging in scale from heavy to light, and from richly aromatic to barely scented.
Tasting and Evaluating Olive Oil:
Olive oil has a language of its own and this language is similar to that used in discussing wine. This is not surprising because olives grow in many of the same regions as grapes and factors such as soil, climate and cultivation that affect the quality and flavor are the same for olives and grapes.
In as much as wines can be fruity, astringent, sweet, harmonious, rich, and smooth, so can olive oils. And, in addition to wine having body, depth and liveliness, so does olive oil. There are, of course, differences between the languages. Although color is often an accurate indicator as of the quality of wine, it rarely says anything about the quality of olive oil. Fine oil may range in color from deep green to light gold and may be perfectly clear or somewhat cloudy. Another difference is that unlike some of the best wines which age well over many years, olive oil should be consumed young, because it never ages gracefully.
Tasting and evaluating of olive oil is not difficult. As in tasting wine, the oil tasting experience should consider the aroma, the initial impression the oil makes on the palate, the impressions as one swallows and the taste that lingers in the mouth after the oil has been swallowed. Be especially careful when evaluating oils to discount the shape or attractiveness of the bottle. Producers do not invest large sums of money in fancy or expensive bottles for nothing.
As with wine, the sense of smell is extremely important in evaluating olive oil. Fine olive oils, like fine wine, can have a complex aroma. Unlike wine, however, all of the aroma should come from the fruit itself and not from any fermentation process, and this means that freshness of aroma is the most crucial factor to look for. After checking for freshness, examine the aroma of oil to see if it calls to mind any fruits, vegetables, nuts or verdant aromas.
In order to set up a tasting for yourself or a group of friends, select between four and six oils (more than that confuses the palates of all but the most experienced professional tasters). Decant each of the oils into small containers to remove any bottle appeal and to reduce the perceived differences in colors. Each taster should have a separate small plastic cup with a sample of each oil, and tasters should be supplied with as many teaspoons as there are oils to be tasted.
On the table should also be cold water, soda water, cubes of white bread and apples so that tasters can clear their palates after sampling each oil. (Do not supply cheeses or meats, as these tend to hide the flavor of the oils being tasted). Be sure to supply napkins for cleaning fingers or teaspoons.
Each taster starts by sniffing the oil, noting the intensity of the aroma and assessing the fruitiness of the fresh olive. Other aromas can then be sorted and noted. The next step is to taste the oil. Most professional tasters find that a single teaspoonful is enough. The oil should be rolled over the tongue and around the mouth so that all of the taste receptors on the tongue have an opportunity to react to the oil.
Since different tastes are not all perceived simultaneously, it is important to consider the bite or flavor of the oil when it first hits the mouth, the flavor when swallowed and the aftertaste in the mouth. The overall evaluation will depend on the balance of the three. Some people object to the feeling of oil in their mouths, and prefer to taste by dipping small cubes of bread into the oil.
The Language of Olive Oil:
Aggressive:
Oils which have strong flavors, immediately sensed and felt.
Aromatic:
Oils that have an interesting and complex aroma.
Astringent:
Astringency is the pulling, puckering sensation one feels when the gums, tongue and palate can no longer slide against each other comfortably, as if there is insufficient saliva. In olive oil, as in wine, this is often due to the presence of naturally occurring chemicals, such as Tannin. High acidity also has this same effect. A certain amount of astringency is considered charming. Too much causes discomfort.
Bite:
A term used to describe the presence or lack of an initial flavor impact.
Bitter:
Oils obtained from green olives or olives turning color have a characteristically bitter taste. This bitterness can be more or less pleasant depending on its intensity.
Cucumber:
A flavor produced when an oil is packed for too long, especially in tin containers. Always a negative term.
Delicate:
Used to describe oils that have light aromatic flavors.
Fatty:
A negative term used to describe oils that leave a greasy feeling in the mouth.
Flat:
A negative term used to describe an oil that is weak in taste and aroma.
Fruity:
Flavor that is reminiscent of both the odor and taste of healthy fresh fruit picked at its optimum stage of ripeness.
Green:
A term often used in place of bitter.
Harsh:
A negative term describing oils that produce too much of a feeling of astringency in the mouth.
Intense or Strong:
Refers to the depth of aroma or flavor.
Light or Mild:
Mild in aroma and flavor. The opposite of intense.
Hot peppery:
A peppery feeling at the back of the throat. Can be pleasant or unpleasant depending on the balance of the other flavors in the oil.
Mellow:
Oils that are soft and sweet.
Old:
A negative term used to describe oil that has been kept for too long in jars or tins.
Pungent:
A powerful flavor, leading towards bitterness but without being unpleasant.
Rancid:
An unpleasant taste that occurs in oils that have been exposed too long to air.
Rich:
Oils that have a full rounded flavor.
Rounded:
Oils that are well balanced.
Rustic:
Oils that have hearty aromas and flavors.
Smooth:
Oils with very light aromas and flavors.
Sweet:
A pleasant taste, not exactly sugary, but found in oil in which bitter, astringent or pungent attributes do not dominate.
Flavors That Are Always Signs of Problematic Oil:
Brine:
A salty taste that one finds in oils extracted from olives that were preserved in a saline solution.
Earth:
A characteristic taste from olives that had mud or earth on them and were not washed before being pressed.
Fusty:
The flavor of olives that have undergone an advanced stage of fermentation.
Greasy:
The odors or flavors of petroleum, grease or mineral oil that come from pressing machinery that was not properly cleaned.
Green Leaves:
The flavor obtained from olives much too young or from olives that were crushed together with leaves and twigs.
Grubby:
A wormy taste that comes from olives that were heavily infested with the grubs of the olive fly.
Burned:
A flavor that comes from pressing olives that were overheated before being pressed.
Metallic:
Oils that have been in prolonged contact with metallic surfaces during crushing, mixing, storage or pressing.
Muddy:
A flavor that is found in oils that are scraped from the bottoms and sides of vats and storage tanks.
Soapy:
A flavor produced by contact with greasy or otherwise dirty surfaces during the pressing process.
Winey or Vinegary:
Some fermented olive oils produce flavors that remind one of wine and vinegar.
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VEGETABLE OIL
Vegetable oil is the most popular all-purpose oil because it has very little aroma or flavor. Vegetable oil is a mild tasting oil, produced by combining several different refined oils, usually containing coconut or palm oils.
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WALNUT OIL
Walnut oil is extracted from the kernels of walnuts, which contain an edible oil. It has a rich taste, primarily used in salads. It is expensive to produce and has a short shelf life -- even when unopened. For this reason, store the oil in a cool place (do not refrigerate) and purchase only in small quantities.
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ORANGE LIQUEUR
Orange liqueur is obtained by infusing the peel of the orange with alcohol. Because the peel is used instead of the pulp, orange liqueur tends to have a slight bite. Although you can drink it straight from the glass, orange liqueur works well in marinades, coffee, fruit salads and desserts. Cointreau, Curaτao and Grand Marnier are all brands of orange liqueur.
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ORANGE WATER
Orange water, an ancient flavoring, is a perfumed water distilled from orange blossoms. None of the highly perfumed sweet dishes of the Mediterranean basin would be possible without the use of either orange or rose water. Although orange water can be used in everything from meat stews, to salads, to coffees, it is most often found in Turkish Delight and baklava. Keep in mind that since it is a very powerful flavoring, a little bit goes a long way.
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ROSE WATER
Rose water, a diluted form of rose oil, is an ancient flavoring used to sweeten the highly perfumed dishes of the Mediterranean nations. Like Orange water, its uses in cooking are numerous, its flavor is strong and is best known in Turkish Delight and baklava. Rose water is also a refreshing and delicate drink to complement any Mediterranean meal.
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SHERRY
Sherry, originating in Spain, is a strong wine, ranging from very dry to very sweet. The majority of sherries are a beautiful yellow or lime, made from white grapes and are often fortified with a bit of brandy. The Palomino grape is the principle grape used in the production of sherries but unfortunately, the grape usually doesn't ripen with enough acidity to produce a well-balanced table wine. A general rule when cooking with sherry is that a little bit goes a long way. Sherry makes a very nice addition to many soups, sauces and poultry dishes.
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BALSAMIC VINEGAR
Balsamic vinegar is known in Italian as "aceto balsamico" and originated in Modena, Italy. The term "balsamic" comes from the Italian word for "balm." It is produced from unfermented grape juice which is aged in wooden casks. The best balsamic vinegar is aged for at least ten years. At its highest quality can be served as an after-diner drink, as it is so mellow and smooth. Commercial balsamic vinegar can be purchased as well.
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RED-WINE VINEGAR
Red-wine vinegar is produced by fermenting red wine. There are many types of red-wine vinegar -- the best are aged slowly in wooden vats.
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WHITE-WINE VINEGAR
White-wine vinegar is produced by fermenting white wine. Champagne vinegar and zinfandel vinegar are two types of white-wine vinegar. The best white-wine vinegar has been aged slowly and naturally in wooden vats.
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VODKA
Vodka, a diminutive form of the Russian word for water, is a colorless alcohol made from potatoes, grain and molasses. The Russians and Poles have been arguing for centuries as to which country it originated in. Vodka, generally speaking, has a neutral taste and as a result, it has become very popular in mixed drinks. In cooking, it is used primarily in desserts and sweets, particularly ice cream.
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PORT
Port is a strong sweet wine whose name suggests its place of origin, Portugal. The majority of port is a beautiful burgundy or ruby and is made from red grapes, although there is also a white port made from white grapes. Port is generally stronger and sweeter than most table wines and keeps very well after the bottle has been opened. It is also often fortified with a bit of brandy. A general rule when cooking with port is that a little bit goes a long way. Port makes a very nice addition to many meat and poultry dishes, including duck and pΓtΘ.
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WINE
Cooking With Wine:
Gastronomers and chefs all over the world are in general agreement that cooking with wine can often transform an ordinary dish into a superb one. Respected food writer Robert Courtine wrote that "at least since the onset of the 16th century we French have known that any stew cooked without wine is a sad stew indeed." The Chinese-American poet-philosopher Lin Yutang went even further when he declared that "the beginning of civilization can be marked as that moment when the first cook realized that wine belongs in the cooking pot as much as it does in the wine glass. No one, however, has ever taken this point of view as strongly as the 19th century Italian chef Ippolito Cavalcanti who observed that "a chef who walks into his kitchen and finds there neither a bottle of Marsala, nor of Sherry nor of red wine might just as well commit suicide. What, after all, does he have to live for?"
While there is no need to go to Cavalcanti's extremes, serious chefs should always have a supply of wine on hand for cooking. Take care not use cheap wines for cooking. When wines boil they lose their alcohol and what remains is a concentration of the flavors. A good rule of thumb is not to use any wine in cooking that you would not serve to your guests.
Which Wine With What Food:
The most important general rule in the selection of wines to accompany a meal is that the wines should complement the food and the food should accentuate and blend with the qualities of the wines. Although the long-standing rule of white wine with white meat and red wine with red meat has some notable exceptions, most people seem to find it appropriate most of the time. Following are several guidelines that may prove useful in selecting the right wines for the simplest or the most complex meals. Not all of these combinations will please true wine connoisseurs but those with a bit of culinary courage will find many of these to their taste.
Dry wines generally taste sour if drunk with sweet desserts and red wines often take on a metallic taste when served with fish.
Light dry white wines are ideal with raw and cooked oysters, clams lobsters and other shellfish. Such wines also go well with grilled fish, cold meats and egg dishes.
Full bodied white wines such as white Burgundy go well with fish, poultry and veal in cream sauce.
Rose wine can be served with anything but are best reserved for cold dishes, pates, eggs and pork. Because rose wines are rarely adventurous, they also make excellent companions to light meals.
Light bodied red wines and nearly all wines based on Gamay grapes go well with roast chicken, turkey, veal or lamb, fillet of beef, liver, quail, pheasant, goose liver and soft fermented cheeses like Brie and Camembert. They are also good accompaniments to beef and lamb stews, heavy soups, hamburgers and steaks.
Full-bodied red wines go nicely with duck, goose, kidneys, roastbeef and such heavy beef dishes such as Beef Wellington. They also go well with nearly all beef dishes made with mushrooms or truffles.
Although Champagne and other naturally sparkling wines are traditionally served as an aperitif or at the end of the meal, many feel that sparkling white wines described as 'Brut' or 'extra' go with any meal. The truth is that French Champagnes and sparkling Chardonnay go marvelously with every dish except those served with a vinaigrette sauce. Those sparkling wines described as 'Sec' or 'dry' go well with shellfish lobsters, oysters, shrimps, goose liver dishes and desserts and those called 'demi-sec' or 'semi-dry' are ideal for serving with desserts and cakes.
Sweet white wines are superb compliments to mousses, soufflΘs and cakes. They also go very well with appetizers based on goose liver and with chicken liver pate.
Perhaps a bit more outside the rules of the game are combinations such as Amontillado sherry or Madeira with cream soups; dry sherry with oily fish; full bodied white wines with pork dishes; light dry whites with roast or cold chicken; light reds with game birds such as quail and pheasant; and well chilled roses with pates as well as with dishes based on eggs and pork.
Two or More Wines With A Meal:
There is nothing ostentatious about serving two or more wines at the same meal. In fact, this is a simple way of adding an extra note of elegance to an already pleasant meal. In deciding on the order of wines to serve, there are certain traditional guides, all of which prove logical. Serve white before red; dry before sweet, light before full; young before old. These rules, based on the assumption that a meal should progress from the less interesting wines to those with more flavor and complexity so that dinner will not end with an anticlimax. Thus, a dry white wine correctly served with first course, would be disappointing after the richness of a heavy red wine and a sweet wine that is served before a dry one will make all the wines that follow taste bland and perhaps even bitter.
Temperatures at Which to Serve Wine:
Everyone knows that red wines are supposed to be served at "room temperature" but few people know what that means. Room temperature for Americans is about 72░ F/22░ C, for the English 68░ F/20░ C and for Frenchmen about 64░ F/18░ C. This does not mean that wine should be served at different temperatures in different countries. The ideal temperature for serving red wines is between 64░ - 72░ F/18░ - 20░ C. Warm red wines simply don't taste good and if they are too chilled they lose some of their qualities.
It is always permissible to place a bottle of red wine in the refrigerator for half an hour to bring its temperature down if necessary but if the wine is too cold never (!!!), by any means, absolutely never, warm it artificially as this will invariably destroy the wine. It is better to pour it out cold and let it warm in the glasses. A few red wines also require chilling.
White wines, champagnes and rose wines should always be served chilled. As a rule, the sweeter the wine, the colder it should be. If a white wine has a light sparkle to it when it is poured that means it has been overchilled.
The most convenient way to chill white wines is in the refrigerator. Once they have been opened and brought to the table, the most elegant way to keep them chilled is to use a silver ice bucket expressly designed for this purpose. Remove the cork from the bottle, place the bottle inside the bucket and then add as many ice cubes as will fit in. Finally, fill the bucket nearly to the top with water. (Remember to place a rubber band around the bottle to hold the label in place so that it will not float off after it has become soaked).
Uncorking and Decanting:
Removing the cork from a bottle of wine is not difficult, but there are several rules that should be followed. To prevent the cork from breaking while it is being extracted, be sure to insert the corkscrew so that the point just pierces the end of the cork next to the wine. Take care to insert the corkscrew down the middle of the cork, so that it does not touch the neck of the bottle.
After opening, many red wines, especially those more than 5 years old, will need to "breathe" before they are served. This means that they should be uncorked anywhere from an hour to three hours before serving to allow a bit of air to enter the bottle and mingle with the wine. The older and heavier the wine, the more it will need to breathe.
Most wines can be served directly from the bottle but in the case of old red wines that have a sediment at the bottom of the bottle it is wise to pour the wine into a decanter, leaving the deposit behind, or serve it from a wine basket where the bottle will remain in a prone position. If serving from a basket, pour very smoothly so the wine does not slop back into the bottle and agitate the sediment.
Champagne and other sparkling wines require special handling because their corks are under a great deal of pressure. If not treated with care and respect, these corks can become dangerous missiles propelled through the air with surprising force. Although the popping of Champagne corks creates a festive atmosphere, it is the wrong way to open a sparkling wine because in addition to being dangerous, it harms the wine. Popping of the cork actually reduces the bubbles that make Champagne so special.
To uncork Champagne, first, peel off the foil surrounding the cork and neck of the bottle. While applying pressure to hold the cork in, carefully loosen the metal straps holding the cork. After the straps are removed, continue to press down on the cork and gently twist the bottle, not the cork. When you hear the gas begin to escape around the edges of the cork, do not let the cork escape your grip. The gentle hissing sound will be followed by a barely audible pop, this indicating that you have done the job properly. In this way the wine will not form a foam that will suddenly gush out of the bottle and the bubbles will have been preserved.
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BEEF
The reason that beef has never attained great popularity in the region is that the mountainous and dessert areas of the region and the often salty soil are simply not well suited for grazing land, the most important requirement for cattle. With the exception of buffalo, which were used mainly as beasts of burden, cattle were not raised in the Eastern Mediterranean, and those that were brought from elsewhere suffered because in addition to their travels, they did not find grazing grounds and their flesh was tough and inedible unless chopped or ground.
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BRISKET OF BEEF
Brisket is a fatty joint cut from just below the shoulder. Sold either with or without the bone, it is a cut that should be slow-roasted.
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BEEF INTESTINE
Although pork intestines are more popular, beef intestine is also occassionally used to make sausages. Artificial casings are also available.
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BEEF STOCK
Beef stock is a liquid which is produced by cooking aromatic vegetables such as onions, leeks, carrots and celery, along with fresh herbs, bones and lean meat. If you brown the meat at the beginning of the process, the stock will be brown; if not it will be clear.
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BEEF(NECK OR SHOULDER)
The shoulder, also including the neck, is a large section weighing approximately 45 kilos cut into six sections. The meat has a full bodied flavor and is good for pot roasting, braising, boiling and for ground meat.
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SKIRT STEAK
Skirt steak, beacause it generally is very gristly, is used for stewing, stocks, and kebabs.
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CHICKEN
No matter what the type of bird, there is a good chance that there are dozens of recipes for stuffing, boiling, grilling, frying, poaching and cooking them in any other imaginable manner. Chicken, for example, can be served minced and in meatballs, cooked in vinegar, boiled together with chick peas, or with lemon or pomegranate sauce. Birds can be stuffed or served with a nearly infinite number of fruits, hard boiled eggs and herbs, nuts, rice, jam, yogurt, onions, and cinnamon or perfumed with rose water. The Egyptians even have a recipe for a loaf of bread that is stuffed with chicken.
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CHICKEN FAT:
Chicken fat is soft and greasy and melts easily. It is a very common ingredient in the Jewish kitchen. It is mixed with flour and used as stuffing in kishke and chicken based dishes. Be careful when cooking with chicken fat because it can burn very easily.
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CHICKEN LIVER:
Chicken liver, like other livers, is very high in iron. It can be fried, grilled or broiled, but because of its size it is most often sautΘed or used in pat(s.
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CHICKEN STOCK:
Chicken stock is a liquid which is produced by cooking aromatic vegetables such as onions, leeks, carrots and celery, along with fresh herbs, bones and lean meat. If you brown the meat at the beginning of the process, the stock will be brown; if not it will be clear.
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CHICKEN WINGS:
Chicken wings are an inexpensive but tasty part of the chicken. They are used in stocks and are also marinated then served fried or grilled.
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DUCK
Largely because the peoples of the Eastern Mediterranean have not become as cholesterol conscious as those in America and parts of Europe, few birds are more sought after in the region than ducks. In fact, the fatter the duck, the more highly it is prized. Served stuffed, cooked in their own fat and then dried, or cooked on the grill, these birds hold a special place of honor and are invariably served on the most festive occasions.
Because in Egypt, Israel, Jordan and Lebanon wild ducks are considered protected species, it is increasingly difficult to find wild birds for the dinner table. This has not stopped the duck from maintaining its popularity, especially because about fifteen years ago two enterprising Israelis succeeded in creating a cross between Moscovy and Peking ducks. The new breed, the mallard duck, has proved to be one of the entirely farmed breeds that does not suffer in taste or texture from artificial breeding. Raised under special lighting, the ducks are confused into believing that it is constantly morning, the time that they eat, and this in turn causes the ducks to eat up to 2 times as much as other breeds and for their livers to fatten more rapidly. The breed also has a high resistance to disease and stronger muscles that allow them to carry more weight than most other ducks. In addition to producing excellent meat, the liver of the mallard has a unique, silky and rich texture that makes it ideal for making foie gras. Nearly 40% of the best foie gras of France is now being produced from the livers of mallard ducks raised in Israel.
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GOOSE/GEESE
Geese, also admired for their fatty but firm and remarkably flavorful flesh, remains popular in the area. Because they are expensive, however, their consumption is limited to holidays and special festive events. Like everything else in the area that is considered edible, geese are grilled, can be stuffed and baked (favorite stuffings involve bread, raisins, pistachio nuts and fresh herbs), or can be made into stews. In northern Greece, southern Turkey, and among the Bedouins and members of the Druze faith in the area, it is considered a great honor to kill a goose and serve it to guests.
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LAMB
The favorite meats of the region remain today, as they were three thousand years ago, lamb and mutton. In fact, so taken for granted was it that meat dishes would contain one or the other of these that until recent years writers of recipes felt no need to specify the type of meat to be used in various dishes. Even today a great many recipes call for nothing more complicated than "meat," and one can still find many recipes for "meat with chickpeas," "meat with yogurt and pistachio nuts," and so on. Such recipes simply take it for granted that lamb or mutton are the only meats to be taken seriously.
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LAMB STOCK
Lamb stock is a liquid which is produced by cooking aromatic vegetables such as onions, leeks, carrots and celery, along with fresh herbs, bones and lean meat. If you brown the meat at the beginning of the process, the stock will be brown; if not it will be clear. It is very similar to beef and veal stock, except it has a very strong and difinitive flavor.
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LEG OF LAMB:
The leg is one of the most tender cuts of the lamb. The leg is divided into fillets and shanks, which are then sold on the bone for roasting (such as whole leg of lamb), or boneless to be used in casseroles and meat pies.
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LAMB'S TONGUE
Although not very common outside of the region, lamb tongues are the most tender tongues available. They can be smoked, corned or pickled and are usually eaten hot or cold on sandwiches or in stews.
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PIGEON/PIEGONS
Pigeons remain popular, especially in the Moslem nations of the region. The most tender and tastiest pigeons are those grown in the wild hilly regions of the desserts of Jordan, Egypt, Israel, Lebanon and Syria. Those that are farm-raised in the same countries, as well as in Greece and Turkey, are also considered quite good. Although chickens and turkeys may just as easily make their way into a stew, the most popular ways of preparing pigeons are grilling over hot charcoals or stuffing and baking. Those in the West wanting to try some of these dishes will do well to buy only those birds labeled as "squabs" - that is to say, young pigeons.
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PORK
Because the Moslem and Jewish rules of purity in food are based on those of the Old Testament, it is forbidden to eat pork. However, not all of the people in the Muslim nations of the region and Israel are religiously observant. Although pork can be found in these countries, it is not as common, nor as popular as it is in Greece and Cyprus. One theory to suggest why pork has become a taboo in certain religions is that it is generally thought to be unhygenic. Also, because it has certain similarities to human flesh, it is succeptible to many of man's diseases when raised in hot clmates. And for some unknown reason, in ancient Turkey pork was associated with death.
All of this aside, pork is, due to its tenderness, one of the most often used meats in Greece and Cyprus. It can be roasted, grilled, fried, pickled, smoked, salted and baked. When purchasing pork look for pale pink flesh with firm, white fat. And keep in mind that because nearly all cuts of pork are prime, they can be roasted or grilled.
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PORK SAUSAGE CASING
Sometimes referred to as "skins," pork sausage casings are the intestines of the pig and are used to make sausages. Artificial casings are also available.
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PORK SHOULDER
The shoulder, available on the bone or off, is one of the most tender cuts of the pig. It is most often used for kebabs and casseroles.
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PORK FAT
Pork fat, or lard, has a soft greasy texture and a distincitive taste. It is used for sautΘing and frying and also in pie doughs.
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LEG OF PORK
The leg of pork is always one of the hind legs. It is a very tender and lean cut available on the bone or off, and sometimes rolled. The leg is almost always roasted.
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PORK LOIN
The loin is a tender and very lean joint that is usually roasted.
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BACON
Bacon, sold either sliced or in slabs and either smoked or unsmoked, is the belly of pork. It almost always has a very high fat content. Canadian bacon is from the loin of the pig, and as a result, is much meatier.
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QUAIL/QUAILS
Quail are especially popular, and one of the traditional reasons for their popularity is that they are so easy to catch. Quails tend to make their migratory flights during the night-time hours. By dawn, exhausted from a strenuous night, they settle on the beaches or in the dessert, so exhausted that one can simply walk around, picking up as many quail as one likes for the day's meal. Some archaeologists speculate that this accounts for the ease with which the Hebrews dined daily on quail for the 40 years they wandered through the Sinai dessert. Today, whether caught wild or farmed, quails continue to be thought of as a luxurious bird, one ideally suited for pickling, grilling, serving with rice or grapes. All civilized people in the region know that the very best way to eat a quail is with their fingers.
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VEAL BRAIN:
Veal, or calf's brain, is pale pink in color and very delicate. Considered a delicacy in parts of the region, it can be sautΘed or fried.
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VEAL STOCK:
Veal stock is a liquid which is produced by cooking aromatic vegetables such as onions, leeks, carrots and celery, along with fresh herbs, bones and lean meat. If you brown the meat at the beginning of the process, the stock will be brown; if not it will be clear.
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LEG OF VEAL:
The leg of veal is a prime cut. Although it can be grilled, in the Mediterranean region it is always roasted. The shin of the leg is often used in stocks and soups.
